A Short History of the United States by Edward Channing

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[Illustration: A MISSISSIPPI RIVER COTTON STEAMER.]

[Sidenote: Failure of reconstruction. _Source-Book_, 349-351.]

456. Anarchy in the South.--Meantime reconstruction was not working
well in the South. This was especially true of Louisiana, Arkansas, and
South Carolina. In Louisiana, and in Arkansas also, there were two sets
of governors and legislatures, and civil war on a small scale was going
on. In South Carolina the carpetbaggers and the negroes had gained
control. They stole right and left. In other Southern states there were
continued outrages on the negroes. President Grant was greatly troubled.
"Let us have peace," was his heartfelt wish. But he felt it necessary to
keep Federal soldiers in the South, although he knew that public opinion
in the North was turning against their employment. It was under these
circumstances that the election of 1876 was held.

[Sidenote: Election of 1876. _Higginson_, 331-334.]

[Sidenote: The electoral commission.]

[Sidenote: Hayes inaugurated, 1877.]

457. Election of 1876.--The Republican candidate was Rutherford B.
Hayes of Ohio. He was a gallant soldier of the Civil War, and was a man
of the highest personal character. His Democratic opponent was Samuel J.
Tilden of New York--a shrewd lawyer who had won distinction as governor
of the Empire State. When the electoral returns were brought in, there
appeared two sets of returns from each of three Southern states, and the
vote of Oregon was doubtful. The Senate was Republican, and the House
was Democratic. As the two houses could not agree as to how these
returns should be counted, they referred the whole matter to an
electoral commission. This commission was made up of five Senators, five
Representatives, and five justices of the Supreme Court. Eight of them
were Republicans and seven were Democrats. They decided by eight seven
that Hayes was elected, and he was inaugurated President on March
4, 1877.

[Sidenote: Southern politics _Higginson_, 334-335.]

[Sidenote: Troops withdrawn.]

458. Withdrawal of the Soldiers from the South.--The People of the
North were weary of the ceaseless political agitation in the South. The
old Southern leaders had regained control of nearly all the Southern
states. They could not be turned out except by a new civil war, and the
Northern people were not willing to go to war again. The only other
thing that could be done was to withdraw the Federal soldiers and let
the Southern people work out their own salvation as well as they could.
President Hayes recalled the troops, and all the Southern states at once
passed into the control of the Democrats.

[Illustration: THE RUINS AFTER THE PITTSBURGH RIOTS.]

[Sidenote: Panic and hard times.]

[Sidenote: The Pittsburgh riots, 1877.]

459. Strikes and Riots, 1877.--The extravagance and speculation of
the Civil War, and the years following its close, ended in a great panic
in 1873. After the panic came the "hard times." Production fell off. The
demand for labor diminished. Wages were everywhere reduced. Strikes
became frequent, and riots followed the strikes. At Pittsburg, in
western Pennsylvania, the rioters seized the railroad. They burned
hundreds of railroad cars and locomotives. They destroyed the railroad
buildings. At last the riot came to an end, but not until millions of
dollars' worth of property had been destroyed.

[Sidenote: The Stalwart Republicans.]

[Sidenote: Garfield elected President, 1880.]

460. Election of 1880.--At the beginning of his administration
Hayes had declared that he would not be a candidate for reelection. Who
should be the Republican standard bearer? Grant's friends proposed to
nominate him for a third term. The politicians who advocated a third
term for Grant were opposed to the candidacy of James G. Blaine. They
were called the Stalwart Republicans. In the convention they voted
steadily and solidly for Grant. Finally their opponents, with the cry of
"Anything to beat Grant," suddenly turned to an entirely new man, whose
name had been little mentioned. This was James A. Garfield of Ohio. He
had won distinction in the Civil War and had served with credit in
Congress. For Vice-President the Republicans nominated Chester A.
Arthur, a New York banker. The Democrats, on their part, nominated one
of the most brilliant and popular soldiers of the Army of the Potomac,
General Winfield Scott Hancock. The campaign was very hotly contested.
In the end Garfield won.

[Sidenote: Garfield murdered, 1881.]

[Sidenote: President Arthur.]

[Sidenote: Civil Service Reform. _Source-Book_, 363-365.]

461. Garfield murdered; Civil Service Reform.--President Garfield
took the oath of office on March 4, 1881. On July 2 he was shot in the
back by a disappointed office-seeker. Week after week he endured
terrible agony. At length, on September 19, the martyred President died.
Now at last the evils of the "Spoils System" were brought to the
attention of the American people. Vice-President Arthur became President
and entered heartily into projects of reform. A beginning was soon made.
But it was found to be a very difficult thing to bring about any lasting
reform. The Constitution gives the President the appointment of
officers, subject to the confirmation of the Senate. No act of Congress
can diminish the constitutional powers of the President except so far as
he consents, and one President cannot bind succeeding Presidents. Any
scheme of reform also costs money, which must be voted annually by
Congress. It follows, therefore, that the consent of every President and
of both Houses of every Congress is necessary to make the reform of the
civil service permanent. Nevertheless the reform has made steady
progress until now by far the greater part of the civil service is
organized on the merit system.

[Sidenote: J.G. Blaine]

[Sidenote: The Mugwumps.]

[Sidenote: Grover Cleveland.]

[Sidenote: Cleveland elected President, 1884.]

[Sidenote: Tariff reform.]

462. Election of 1884.--In 1884 the Republicans nominated James G.
Blaine of Maine for President. He was a man of magnetic address and had
made many friends, but he also had made many enemies. Especially many
Republican voters distrusted him. They felt that he had used his
position for private gain, although nothing was proved against him.
These Republicans were called "Mugwumps." They "bolted" the nomination
and supported the Democratic candidate, Grover Cleveland. As mayor of
Buffalo, Cleveland had done very well. He had then been elected governor
of New York by a very large majority. The campaign of 1884 was conducted
on lines of personal abuse that recall the campaigns of 1800 and of
1828. Cleveland carried four large Northern states and the "solid South"
and was elected.

[Illustration: GROVER CLEVELAND.]

463. Cleveland's Administration, 1885-89.--The great contest of
Cleveland's first term was a fierce struggle over the tariff. The
government's need of money during the Civil War had compelled Congress
to raise large sums by means of internal revenue taxes. These taxes in
turn had brought about a great increase in the tariff rates on goods
imported from foreign countries. The internal revenue taxes had been
almost entirely removed, but the war tariff substantially remained in
force. In 1887 Cleveland laid the whole question before Congress. For a
time it seemed probable that something would be done. But the opposition
in Congress was very active and very strong. It fell out, therefore,
that nothing important was done. The real significance of Cleveland's
first administration lay in the fact that the Southerners were once
again admitted to a share in the government of the nation. It marked,
therefore, the reunion of the American people.

QUESTIONS AND TOPICS

CHAPTER 42

Sec.Sec.437, 438.--_a_. Explain carefully Lincoln's plan for reconstruction.
How was it affected by his death?

_b_. What was Johnson's attitude toward reconstruction? Precisely what
is meant by "reconstruction"?

Sec.Sec.439-441.--_a_. What was the force of the Emancipation Proclamation?
How was the institution of slavery abolished?

_b_. Explain the reasons for the establishment of the freedmen's bureau.
What do you think of the provision relating to the use of the army?

_c_. How was Congress able to pass a bill over the President's veto?

_d_. Explain carefully the Fourteenth Amendment. What do you think of
the provision as to debts?

Sec.Sec.442, 443.--_a_. Why were the elections of 1866 important?

_b_. What was the force of the Tenure of Office Act, and why was it
passed?

_c_. Describe the actual process of reconstruction.

_d_. Why was Johnson impeached? Why did the impeachment fail?

Sec.Sec.444, 445.--_a_. How did this act of Napoleon's set the Monroe Doctrine
at defiance?

_b_. What action did the government take? With what result?

_c_. What advantage has Alaska been to the United States?

Sec.446.--_a_. What were the issues in the campaign of 1868?

_b_. What had Blair done for the Union?

_c_. What did the election of Grant show?

CHAPTER 43

Sec.Sec.447-449.--_a_. What were the provisions of the Fifteenth Amendment?

_b_. Under what conditions were the remaining seceded states readmitted?

_c_. What was the Force Act? Why was it passed?

Sec.450.--_a_. How was the injury to our shipping during the Civil War
connected with Great Britain?

_b_. What is meant by "arbitration"? Is it better to settle disputes by
arbitration or by war?

Sec.Sec.451-452.--_a_. Describe the Chicago fire and its results.

_b_. Why was there so much bribery and corruption at this time?

_c_. Should city governments be conducted as business enterprises?

Sec.453.--_a_. Why was there so much opposition to Grant's reelection?

_b_. Why did the Democrats nominate Greeley? What was the result of the
election?

Sec.454.--_a_. What trouble broke out in Cuba? Why?

_b_. Describe the _Virginius_ affair. How did the Cuban rebellion come
to an end?

Sec.Sec.455, 456.--_a_. What scandal arose in connection with the Union
Pacific Railway?

_b_. What was the "Whiskey Ring"? What was Grant's wish?

_c_. What troubles arose in the South? Could they have been avoided?

Sec.Sec.457, 458.--_a_. Why was there a dispute about the election of 1876?
How was it settled?

_b_. Was it wise to let the Southerners work out their questions for
themselves or not? Why?

Sec.Sec.459, 460.--_a_. Compare the panic of 1873 with that of 1877 explaining
the likenesses and differences.

_b_. Why was opposition to the nomination of Grant so strong?

_c_. Who were nominated? Who was elected?

Sec.Sec.461.--_a_. What was the cause of Garfield's murder?

_b_. Why is Civil Service Reform so difficult?

_c_. What is meant by the "Merit System"? Do you consider such a system
better or worse than the Spoils System? Why?

Sec.Sec.462, 463.--_a_. Why was Blaine so strongly opposed? Who were the
"Mugwumps"? How did their action influence the election?

_b_. What is the difference between internal revenue taxes and customs
duties?

_c_. What was the real significance of Cleveland's first election?

GENERAL QUESTIONS

_a_. Give all the treaties with Great Britain, with dates, reason for
the treaty, and results.

_b_. Why were there no executions for treason at the close of the Civil
War?

_c_. What two methods does the Constitution provide for its amendment?
Which method has always been followed?

_d_. What were the chief difficulties in the way of reconstruction?

_e_. What are the important duties of citizens? Why do you select these?

TOPICS FOR SPECIAL WORK

_a_. Impeachment of Johnson.

_b_. The Chicago fire.

_c_. Civil Service Reform.

_d_. Industrial activity in the South.

SUGGESTIONS

The importance of the topics treated in Part XIV can hardly be
overestimated. The opportunities to impress the pupils with their public
duties are many and important. Reconstruction should be broadly treated
and not discussed in a partisan spirit. It is better to dwell on our
duties to the negroes than to seek out Northern blunders and Southern
mistakes. In connection with the amendments the whole question of the
suffrage can be discussed in the responsibility devolving upon the voter
fully set forth. Questions of municipal organizations also arise and can
be illustrated by local experience.

XV

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT,
1889-1900

Books for Study and Reading

References.--Scribner's _Popular History_, V, 579-659;
McMaster's _School History_, chs. xxxiv, xxxv.

Home Readings.--Any short, attractive account of the Spanish
War.

CHAPTER 44

CONFUSION IN POLITICS

[Sidenote: Benjamin Harrison elected President, 1888.]

464. Benjamin Harrison elected President, 1888.--In 1888 the
Democrats put forward Cleveland as their candidate for President. The
Republicans nominated Benjamin Harrison of Indiana. Like Hayes and
Garfield, he had won renown in the Civil War and was a man of the
highest honor and of proved ability. The prominence of the old Southern
leaders in the Democratic administration, and the neglect of the
business interests of the North, compelled many Northern Republicans who
had voted for Cleveland to return to the Republican party. The result
was the election of Harrison and of a Republican majority in the House
of Representatives.

[Sidenote: The McKinley tariff, 1890.]

[Sidenote: Reciprocity.]

465. The McKinley Tariff, 1890.--One of the questions most
discussed in the campaign of 1888 was the reform of the tariff. There
seem to have been two sets of tariff reformers. One set of reformers
proposed to reform the tariff by doing away with as much of it as
possible. The other set of reformers proposed to readjust the tariff
duties so as to make the protective system more consistent and more
perfect. Led by William McKinley, the Republicans set to work to reform
the tariff in this latter sense. This they did by generally raising the
duties on protected goods. The McKinley Tariff Act also offered
reciprocity to countries which would favor American goods. This offer
was in effect to lower certain duties on goods imported from Argentina,
for instance, if the Argentine government would admit certain American
goods to Argentina on better terms than similar goods imported from
other countries.

[Illustration: THE CAPITOL AT WASHINGTON.]

[Sidenote: Gold and Silver]

[Sidenote: Sherman Silver Law.]

466. The Sherman Silver Law, 1890.--In the Civil War gold and
silver had disappeared from circulation. But after the close of the war
a gradual return was made to specie payments. In the colonial days the
demand for silver, as compared with the demand for gold, outran the
supply. The consequence was that silver was constantly becoming worth
more in comparison with gold. In the nineteenth century the supply of
silver has greatly outstripped the demand, with the result that silver
has greatly declined in value as compared with gold. In 1871 the
government decided to use silver for small coins only, and not to allow
silver to be offered in payment of a larger sum than five dollars. This
was called the "demonetization of silver." In 1878 a small but earnest
band of advocates of the free coinage of silver secured the passage of
an act of Congress for the coinage of two million silver dollars each
month. The silver in each one of these dollars was only worth in gold
from ninety to sixty cents. In 1890, Senator John Sherman of Ohio
brought in a bill to increase the coinage of these silver dollars which,
in 1894, were worth only forty nine cents on the dollar in gold.

[Sidenote: Business depression.]

[Sidenote: Cleveland elected President, 1892.]

467. Election of 1892.--One result of this great increase in the
silver coinage was to alarm business men throughout the country.
Business constantly declined. Every one who could lessened his expenses
as much as possible. Mill owners and railroad managers discharged their
workers or reduced their wages. Harrison and Cleveland were again the
Republican and Democratic candidates for the presidency. As is always
the case, the party in power was held to be responsible for the hard
times. Enough voters turned to Cleveland to elect him, and he was
inaugurated President for the second time (March 4, 1893).

[Sidenote: Scarcity of money.]

[Sidenote: Repeal of the Sherman Law.]

[Sidenote: Wilson tariff.]

468. Silver and the Tariff.--In the summer of 1893 there was a
great scarcity of money. Thousands of people withdrew all the money they
could from the banks and locked it up in places of security. But
Congress repealed the Sherman Silver Law and put an end to the
compulsory purchase of silver and the coinage of silver dollars. This
tended to restore confidence. The Democrats once more overhauled the
tariff. Under the lead of Representative Wilson of West Virginia they
passed a tariff act, lowering some duties and placing many articles on
the free list.

[Sidenote: Chicago Exhibition, 1893.]

469. The Chicago Exhibition, 1893.--The four hundredth anniversary
of the Columbian discovery of America occurred in October, 1892.
Preparations were made for holding a great commemorative exhibition at
Chicago. But it took so long to get everything ready that the exhibition
was not held until the summer of 1893. Beautiful buildings were erected
of a cheap but satisfactory material. They were designed with the
greatest taste, and were filled with splendid exhibits that showed the
skill and resources of Americans, and also with the products of foreign
countries. Hundreds of thousands of persons from all parts of the
country visited the exhibition with pleasure and great profit. No more
beautiful or successful exhibition has ever been held.

[Illustration: THE FISHERIES BUILDING, WORLD'S FAIR, CHICAGO.]

[Sidenote: William McKinley.]

[Sidenote: W.J. Bryan.]

[Sidenote: McKinley elected President, 1896.]

470. Election of 1896.--In 1896 the Republicans held their
convention at St. Louis and nominated William McKinley of Ohio for
President. They declared in favor of the gold standard, unless some
arrangement with other nations for a standard of gold and silver could
be made. They also declared for protection to home industries. The
Democrats held their convention at Chicago. The men who had stood by
Cleveland found themselves in a helpless minority. William Jennings
Bryan of Nebraska was nominated for President on a platform advocating
the free coinage of silver and many changes in the laws in the
direction of socialism. The Populists and the Silver Republicans also
adopted Bryan as their candidate. Now, at last, the question of the gold
standard or the silver standard was fairly before the voters. They
responded by electing McKinley and a Republican House of
Representatives.

[Illustration: WILLIAM MCKINLEY.]

[Sidenote: The Dingley tariff, 1897.]

471. The Dingley Tariff, 1897.--The Republicans, once more in
control of the government, set to work to reform the tariff in favor of
high protection. Representative Dingley of Maine was chairman of the
committee of the House that drew up the new bill, and the act as finally
passed goes by his name. It raised the duties on some classes of goods
and taxed many things that hitherto had come in free. Especially were
duties increased on certain raw materials for manufactures, with a view
to encourage the production of such materials in the United States. The
reciprocity features of the McKinley tariff (P. 383) were also restored.

CHAPTER 45

THE SPANISH WAR, 1898

[Sidenote: The Cubans rebel, 1894.]

[Sidenote: Spanish cruelties, _Source-book_, 374-379.]

472. The Cuban Rebellion, 1894-98.--The Cubans laid down their arms
in 1877 (p. 372) because they relied on the promises of better
government made by the Spaniards. But these promises were never carried
out. Year after year the Cuban people bore with their oppression. But at
last their patience was worn out. In 1894 they again rebelled. The
Spaniards sent over an army to subdue them. Soon tales of cruelty on the
part of the Spaniards reached the United States. Finally the Spanish
governor, General Weyler, adopted the cruel measure of driving the old
men, the women, and the children from the country villages and huddling
them together in the seaboard towns. Without money, without food, with
scant shelter, these poor people endured every hardship. They died by
thousands. The American people sent relief, but little could be done to
help them. The Cubans also fitted out expeditions in American ports to
carry arms and supplies to the rebels. The government did everything in
its power to stop these expeditions, but the coast line of the United
States is so long that it was impossible to stop them all, especially as
large numbers of the American people heartily sympathized with the
Cubans. Constant disputes with Spain over the Cuban question naturally
came up and gave rise to irritation in the United States and in Spain.

[Illustration: THE "MAINE."]

[Sidenote: Destruction of the _Maine_, 1898.]

[Sidenote: Cuban independence recognized.]

473. The Declaration of War, 1898.--On January 5, 1898, the
American battleship _Maine_ anchored in Havana harbor. On February 15
she was destroyed by an explosion and sank with two hundred and
fifty-three of her crew. A most competent Court of Inquiry was
appointed. It reported that the _Maine_ had been blown up from the
outside. The report of the Court of Inquiry was communicated to the
Spanish government in the hope that some kind of apology and reparation
might be made. But all the Spanish government did was to propose that
the matter should be referred to arbitration. The condition of the
Cubans was now dreadful. Several Senators and Representatives visited
Cuba. They reported that the condition of the Cubans was shocking. The
President laid the whole matter before Congress for its determination.
On April 19, 1898, Congress recognized the independence of the Cuban
people and demanded the withdrawal of the Spaniards from the island.
Congress also authorized the President to compel Spain's withdrawal and
stated that the United States did not intend to annex Cuba, but to leave
the government of the island to its inhabitants. Before these terms
could be formally laid before the Spanish government, it ordered the
American minister to leave Spain.

[Illustration: THE "OLYMPIA." From a photograph by Irving Underhill.]

[Sidenote: Battle of Manila Bay, May 1, 1898.]

474. The Destruction of the Spanish Pacific Fleet.--Admiral Dewey,
commanding the American squadron on the Asiatic station, had
concentrated all his vessels at Hong Kong, in the belief that war was at
hand. Of course he could not stay at Hong Kong after the declaration of
war. The only thing that he could do was to destroy the Spanish fleet
and use Spanish ports as a naval base. The Spanish fleet was in Manila
Bay. Thither sailed Dewey. In the darkness of the early morning of May
1, Dewey passed the Spanish forts at the entrance of the bay. The fleet
was at anchor near the naval arsenal, a few miles from the city of
Manila. As soon as it was light Dewey opened fire on the Spaniards. Soon
one Spanish ship caught fire, then another, and another. Dewey drew off
out of range for a time while his men rested and ate their breakfasts.
He then steamed in again and completed the destruction of the enemy's
fleet. Not an American ship was seriously injured. Not one American
sailor was killed. This victory gave the Americans the control of the
Pacific Ocean and the Asiatic waters, as far as Spain was concerned. It
relieved the Pacific seacoast of the United States of all fear of
attack. It made it possible to send soldiers and supplies to Manila,
without fear of attack while on the way. And it was necessary to send
soldiers because Dewey, while he was supreme on the water and could
easily compel the surrender of Manila, could not properly police the
town after its capture.

[Sidenote: Defense of the Atlantic seaboard.]

[Sidenote: Blockade of Cuba.]

475. The Atlantic Seacoast and the Blockade.--No sooner did war
seem probable than the people on the Atlantic seacoast were seized with
an unreasoning fear of the Spanish fleets. For the Spaniards had a few
new fast ships. The mouths of the principal harbors were blocked with
mines and torpedoes. The government bought merchant vessels of all kinds
and established a patrol along the coast. It also blockaded the more
important Cuban seaports. But the Cuban coast was so long that it was
impossible to blockade it all. As it was, great suffering was inflicted
on the principal Spanish armies in Cuba.

[Sidenote: The Spanish-Atlantic fleet.]

[Sidenote: The American fleet.]

476. The Atlantic Fleets.--Before long a Spanish fleet of four new,
fast armored cruisers and three large sea-going torpedo-boat destroyers
appeared in the West Indies. The Spanish admiral did not seem to know
exactly where to go. But after sailing around the Caribbean Sea for a
time, he anchored in Santiago harbor--on the southern coast of Cuba. In
the American navy there were only two fast armored cruisers, the _New
York _and the _Brooklyn_. These with five battleships--the _Oregon,
Iowa, Indiana, Massachusetts_, and _Texas_--and a number of smaller
vessels were placed under the command of Admiral Sampson and sent to
Santiago. Another fleet of sea-going monitors and unarmored cruisers
maintained the Cuban blockade.

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