History of Liberia by J.H.T. McPherson
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J.H.T. McPherson >> History of Liberia
When the Elizabeth was chartered the Society was notified that the
Government agency was prepared to transport their first colonists; or
more literally "agreed to receive on board such free blacks recommended
by the Society as might be required for the purpose of the agency." For
the expenses of the expedition $33,000 was placed in the hands of Mr.
Bacon. Dr. Samuel A. Crozier was appointed by the Society as its agent
and representative; and eighty-six negroes from various
states--thirty-three men, eighteen women, and the rest children, were
embarked. On the 6th of February, 1820, the Mayflower of Liberia weighed
anchor in New York harbor, and, convoyed by the U.S. sloop-of-war Cyane,
steered her course toward the shores of Africa. The pilgrims were kindly
treated by the authorities at Sierra Leone, where they arrived on the
ninth of March; but on proceeding to Sherbro Island they found the
natives had reconsidered their promise, and refused to sell them land.
While delayed by negotiations the injudicious nature of the site
selected was disastrously shown. The low marshy ground and the bad water
quickly bred the African fever, which soon carried off all the agents
and nearly a fourth of the emigrants. The rest, weakened and
disheartened were soon obliged to seek refuge at Sierra Leone.
In March, 1821, a body of twenty-eight new emigrants under charge of
J.B. Winn and Ephraim Bacon, reached Freetown in the brig Nautilus. Winn
collected as many as he could of the first company, also the stores sent
out with them, and settled the people in temporary quarters at Fourah
Bay, while Bacon set out to explore the coast anew and secure suitable
territory. An elevated fertile and desirable tract was at length
discovered between 250 and 300 miles S.E. of Sierra Leone. This was the
region of Cape Montserado. It seemed exactly suited to the purposes of
the colonists, but the natives refused to sell their land for fear of
breaking up the traffic in slaves; and the agent returned discouraged.
Winn soon died, and Bacon returned to the United States. In November,
Dr. Eli Ayres was sent over as agent, and the U.S. schooner Alligator,
commanded by Lieutenant Stockton, was ordered to the coast to assist in
obtaining a foothold for the colony. Cape Montserado was again visited;
and the address and firmness of Lieutenant Stockton accomplished the
purchase of a valuable tract of land.
The cape upon which the settlers proposed to build their first
habitations consists of a narrow peninsula or tongue of land formed by
the Montserado River, which separates it from the mainland. Just within
the mouth of the river lie two small islands, containing together less
than three acres. To these, the Plymouth of Liberia, the colonists and
their goods were soon transported. But again the fickle natives repented
the bargain, and the settlers were long confined to "Perseverance
Island," as the spot was aptly named. Space forbids entering on the
interesting details of the difficulties they successfully encountered.
After a number of thrilling experiences the emigrants, on April 25,
1822, formally took possession of the cape, where they had erected rude
houses for themselves; and from this moment we may date the existence of
the colony. Their supplies were by this time sadly reduced; the natives
were hostile and treacherous; fever had played havoc with the colonists
in acclimating; and the incessant downpour of the rainy season had set
in. Dr. Ayres became thoroughly discouraged, and proposed to lead them
back to Sierra Leone. Then it was that Elijah Johnson, an emigrant from
New York, made himself forever famous in Liberian history by declaring
that he would never desert the home he had found after two years' weary
quest! His firmness decided the wavering colonists; the agents with a
few faint-hearted ones sailed off to America; but the majority remained
with their heroic Negro leader. The little band, deserted by their
appointed protectors, were soon reduced to the most dire distress, and
must have perished miserably but for the arrival of unexpected relief.
The United States Government had at last gotten hold of some ten
liberated Africans, and had a chance to make use of the agency
established for them at so great an expense. They were accordingly sent
out in the brig Strong under the care of the Rev. Jehudi Ashmun. A
quantity of stores and some thirty-seven emigrants sent by the
Colonization Society completed the cargo. Ashmun had received no
commission as agent for the colony, and expected to return on the
Strong; under this impression his wife had accompanied him. But when he
found the colonists in so desperate a situation he nobly determined to
remain with them at any sacrifice. He visited the native chiefs and
found them, under cover of friendly promises, preparing for a deadly
assault on the little colony. There was no recourse but to prepare for a
vigorous defense. Twenty-seven men were capable of bearing arms; and one
brass and five iron fieldpieces, all dismantled and rusty, formed his
main hope. Ashmun at once set to work, and with daily drills and
unremitting labor in clearing away the forest and throwing up
earthworks, succeeded at last in putting the settlement in a reasonable
state of defense. It was no easy task. The fatiguing labor, incessant
rains, and scanty food predisposed them to the dreaded fever. Ashmun
himself was prostrated; his wife sank and died before his eyes; and soon
there was but one man in the colony who was not on the sick-list. At
length the long-expected assault was made. Just before daybreak on the
11th of November the settlement was approached by a body of over eight
hundred African warriors. Stealthily following the pickets as they
returned a little too early from their watch, the savages burst upon the
colony and with a rush captured the outworks. A desperate conflict
ensued, the issue of which hung doubtful until the colonists succeeded
in manning their brass field-piece, which was mounted upon a raised
platform, and turning it upon the dense ranks of the assailants. The
effect at such short range was terrible. "Every shot literally spent its
force in a solid mass of living human flesh. Their fire suddenly
terminated. A savage yell was raised, ... and the whole host
disappeared."[8] The victory had been gained at a cost of four killed
and as many seriously wounded. Ammunition was exhausted; food had given
out. Another attack, for which the natives were known to be preparing,
could scarcely fail to succeed. Before it was made, however, an English
captain touched at the cape and generously replenished their stores. On
the very next evening, November 30, the savages were seen gathering in
large numbers on the cape, and toward morning a desperate attack was
made on two sides at once. The lines had been contracted, however, and
all the guns manned, and the well-directed fire of the artillery again
proved too much for native valor. The savages were repulsed with great
loss. The unusual sound of a midnight cannonade attracted the Prince
Regent, an English colonial schooner laden with military stores and
having on board the celebrated traveller Captain Laing, through whose
mediation the natives were brought to agree to a peace most advantageous
to the colonists. When the Prince Regent sailed, Midshipman Gordon, with
eleven British sailors volunteered to remain, to assist the exhausted
colonists and guarantee the truce. His generosity met an ill requital;
within a month he had fallen victim to the climate with eight of the
brave seamen. Supplies were again running low, when March brought the
welcome arrival of the U.S. ship Cyane. Captain R.T. Spence at once
turned his whole force to improving the condition of the colonists.
Buildings were erected, the dismantled colonial schooner was raised and
made sea-worthy, and many invaluable services were rendered, until at
length a severe outbreak of the fever among the crew compelled the
vessel's withdrawal. It was too late, however, to prevent the loss of
forty lives, including the lieutenant, Richard Dashiell, and the
surgeon, Dr. Dix.
On the 24th of May, 1823, the brig Oswego arrived with sixty-one new
emigrants and a liberal supply of stores and tools, in charge of Dr.
Ayres, who, already the representative of the Society, had now been
appointed Government Agent and Surgeon. One of the first measures of the
new agent was to have the town surveyed and lots distributed among the
whole body of colonists. Many of the older settlers found themselves
dispossessed of the holdings improved by their labor, and the colony was
soon in a ferment of excitement and insurrection. Dr. Ayres, finding his
health failing, judiciously betook himself to the United States.
The arrival of the agent had placed Mr. Ashmun in a false position of
the most mortifying character. It will be remembered that in sympathy
for the distress of the colony he had assumed the position of agent
without authority. In the dire necessity of subsequent events he had
been compelled to purchase supplies and ammunition in the Society's
name. He now found, himself superseded in authority, his services and
self-sacrifice unappreciated, his drafts[9] dishonored, his motives
distrusted. Nothing could show more strongly his devotion and
self-abnegation than his action in the present crisis. Seeing the colony
again deserted by the agent and in a state of discontent and confusion,
he forgot his wrongs and remained at the helm. Order was soon restored
but the seeds of insubordination remained. The arrival of 103 emigrants
from Virginia on the Cyrus, in February 1824, added to the difficulty,
as the stock of food was so low that the whole colony had to be put on
half rations. This necessary measure was regarded by the disaffected as
an act of tyranny on Ashmun's part; and when shortly after the complete
prostration of his health compelled him to withdraw to the Cape De Verde
Islands, the malcontents sent home letters charging him with all sorts
of abuse of power, and finally with desertion of his post! The Society
in consternation applied to Government for an expedition of
investigation, and the Rev. R.R. Gurley, Secretary of the Society, and
an enthusiastic advocate of colonization was despatched in June on the
U.S. schooner Porpoise. The result of course revealed the probity,
integrity and good judgment of Mr. Ashman; and Gurley became
thenceforth his warmest admirer. As a preventive of future discontent a
Constitution was adopted at Mr. Gurley's suggestion, giving for the
first time a definite share in the control of affairs to the colonists
themselves. Gurley brought with him the name of the colony--Liberia, and
of its settlement on the Cape--Monrovia, which had been adopted by the
Society on the suggestion of Mr. Robert Goodloe Harper of Maryland. He
returned from his successful mission in August leaving the most cordial
relations established throughout the colony.
Gurley's visit seemed to mark the turning of the tide, and a period of
great prosperity now began. Relay after relay of industrious emigrants
arrived; new land was taken up; successful agriculture removed all
danger of future failure of food supply; and a flourishing trade was
built up at Monrovia. Friendly relations were formed with the natives,
and their children taken for instruction into colonial families and
schools. New settlements were formed; churches and schools appeared; an
efficient militia was organized; printing presses set up and hospitals
erected. On every side rapid progress was made. After years of
illustrious service Ashmun retired to his home in New Haven, where he
died a few days later, on August 25, 1828. Under Dr. Richard Randall and
Dr. Mechlin, who successively filled his post, the prosperity of the
colony continued undiminished.
The decade after 1832 is marked by the independent action of different
State colonization societies. At first generally organized as tributary
to the main body, the State societies now began to form distinct
settlements at other points on the coast. The Maryland Society first
started an important settlement at Cape Palmas, of which we shall make a
special study. Bassa Cove was settled by the joint action of the New
York and Pennsylvania Societies; Greenville, on the Sinou river, by
emigrants from Mississippi; and the Louisiana Society engaged in a
similar enterprise. The separate interests of the different settlements
at length began in many cases to engender animosity and bad feeling; the
need of general laws and supervision was everywhere apparent; and a
movement toward a federal union of the colonies was set on foot. A plan
was at length agreed upon by all except Maryland, by which the colonies
were united into the "Commonwealth of Liberia," whose government was
controlled by a Board of Directors composed of Delegates from the State
societies. This board at its first meeting drew up a plan of government,
and Thomas Buchanan was appointed first Governor of the Commonwealth,
1837. The advantages of the union were soon apparent. The more
aggressive native tribes with whom not a little trouble had been
experienced, were made to feel the strength of the union; and many of
the smaller head-men voluntarily put themselves under the protection of
the Government, agreeing to become citizens, with all their subjects,
and submit to its laws. The traffic in slaves all along the coast was
checked, inter-tribal warfare prevented, and trial by the sassa-wood
ordeal abolished wherever colonial influence extended. Mr. Buchanan was
the last white man who exercised authority in Liberia. On his death the
Lieutenant-Governor, Joseph Jenkins Roberts, succeeded him. Roberts, who
afterward became Liberia's most distinguished citizen, was a Virginia
Negro, having been born at Norfolk in 1809, and brought up near
Petersburg. He obtained a rudimentary education while running a
flat-boat on the James and Appomattox Rivers. In 1829 he went with his
widowed mother and younger brothers to Liberia, where he rapidly rose to
wealth and distinction. As Governor he evinced an efficient
statesmanship that promised well for his future career.
Roberts had not long been governor when trouble arose with the British
coast-wise traders that gave rise to a most interesting crisis. The
Liberian Government in regulating commerce within its jurisdiction had
enacted laws imposing duties on all imported goods. The English traders,
accustomed for hundreds of years to unrestricted traffic on this very
coast, were indignant at the presumption of the upstart colony, and
ignored its regulations. The Government protested, but in vain. And at
length the little colonial revenue schooner John Seyes, while
attempting to enforce the laws at Edina, was actually seized by the
stalwart Britisher and dragged before the Admiralty Court at Sierra
Leone. A long discussion which would be profitless to follow in detail,
ensued. The result was, that the John Seyes was confiscated. The British
Government opened a correspondence with the United States, in which it
was ascertained that Liberia was not in political dependence upon them.
Whereupon the sovereignty of Liberia was promptly denied, her right to
acquire or hold territory questioned, and she was given to understand
that the operations of British traders would in future be backed by the
British navy.
Evidently if Liberia was to maintain and govern her territory something
must be done. The Colonization Society while claiming for Liberia the
right to exercise sovereign powers, seems to have had the unacknowledged
conviction, that England's position, however ungenerous, was logically
unassailable. The supreme authority wielded by the Society, its veto
power over legislative action, was undoubtedly inconsistent with the
idea of a sovereign state. This is clearly apparent from the fact that
though there was pressing necessity for a treaty with England, neither
the colony nor the Society had power to negotiate it. It was accordingly
determined to surrender all control over the colony; and the "people of
the Commonwealth of Liberia" were "advised" by the Society "to undertake
the whole work of self-government;" to make the necessary amendments to
their Constitution, and to declare their full sovereignty to the world.
The suggestion was adopted in Liberia by popular vote, and a convention
met on July 26, 1847, adopted a Declaration of Independence and a new
Constitution, closely modelled on the corresponding documents of the
United States. In September the Constitution was ratified by vote of the
people. Governor Roberts was elected to the office of President, upon
which he entered January 3, 1848. His inaugural address is one of
remarkable interest, fitly proclaiming to the world a new Republic.
IV.
MARYLAND IN LIBERIA.
The widespread interest awakened by the actual establishment of a
permanent colony at Monrovia led to the formation of a number of State
Colonization Societies, at first purely auxiliary to the central body,
but later in some cases independent. The foundation of independent
settlements at Bassa Cove and Sinou by the New York, Pennsylvania and
Mississippi Societies, and their union in 1837 into the Commonwealth,
has been considered. A much more important colony was founded by
Maryland at Cape Palmas, which for years maintained its independence.
In 1831, the Maryland State Colonization Society was formed. Active
interest in the movement had long been felt in the State, and it
scarcely needed the eloquence of Robert Finley, son of the old champion
of colonization, who visited Baltimore in that year, to awaken
enthusiasm. The Society had hardly been formed when ample funds were
provided in an unexpected way. In August, 1831, a tragic Negro uprising
took place in Virginia, in which some sixty-five white men, women and
children were murdered. The Southampton Massacres were attributed
largely to the instigation of the troublesome free-Negro element, and
the growing sentiment in favor of emancipation was abruptly checked. The
Maryland Legislature, sharing the general excitement, passed in December
a resolution which became law in March, and proved to the State Society
what the Act of March 3, 1819, was to the main organization. The
connection was more explicit. Three members of the Society were to be
appointed Commissioners to remove _all_ free Negroes to Liberia. The sum
of $20,000 in the current year, and of $10,000 in each succeeding year,
for a period of twenty years, was devoted to the purpose. Any free Negro
refusing to emigrate was to be summarily ejected from the State by the
sheriff. The wave of feeling which dictated this monstrous piece of
legislation passed away before any of its harsh provisions were carried
out. But the beneficent portion remained in force. The Society was left
in the enjoyment of the liberal annuity of $10,000.
In October, 1831, and December, 1832, expeditions were sent out which
landed emigrants at Monrovia. The difficulty of arriving at an agreement
with the parent Society regarding the rights and status of these people,
together with other considerations, led to the adoption of the idea of
founding a separate colony. The plan was adopted largely through the
support of Mr. John H.B. Latrobe, throughout his life one of the most
active and efficient friends of colonization. The motives of the
undertaking were distinctly announced to be the gradual extirpation of
slavery in Maryland, and the spread of civilization and Christianity in
Africa. Cape Palmas, a bold promontory marking the point where the coast
makes a sharp bend toward the east, was selected as the new site. Its
conspicuous position makes it one of the best known points on the coast,
and some identify it with the "West Horn" reached by Hanno, the
Carthaginian explorer, twenty-nine days out from Gades. Dr. James Hall,
who had gained experience as physician in Monrovia, was placed in charge
of the expedition, and the brig Ann, with a small number of emigrants,
sailed from Baltimore November 28, 1833. A firm legal basis was
projected for the new establishment in a Constitution to which all
emigrants were to subscribe. The experience gained by the older colony
was put to good use. Regular courts, militia, and public schools were
provided for from the first.
The vessel touched at Monrovia, gathered as many recruits as possible
from those sent out on the two previous expeditions, and finally
anchored at Cape Palmas on February 11, 1834. After the usual tedious
"palaver" and bargaining, the natives formally sold the required land.
The cape is a promontory some seventy-five feet in height, separated
from the mainland, except for a narrow, sandy isthmus. A river,
navigable for some miles to small boats, opens opposite it, and forms a
safe harbor. A long, salt-water lake extends to the east, parallel to
the coast. The land is very fertile and well adapted to farming. Several
native villages lie near the cape. From a well-founded fear of native
treachery the colonists laid out their town on the promontory, upon the
summit of which a brass six-pounder was mounted. Farm lands were laid
out on the mainland, and in a short time the little community was in a
thriving condition. None of the distressing misfortunes encountered by
the colony at Monrovia marred the early history of "Maryland in
Liberia."
In 1836 the health of Dr. Hall, whose services to the infant colony had
been invaluable, became so much impaired that he was obliged to resign.
He returned to the United States, and long rendered the Society
efficient service in another capacity. John B. Russwurm, a citizen of
Monrovia, and once editor of the Liberia _Herald_, was appointed
Governor, and served ably and faithfully until his death in 1851. Early
in his administration a convenient form of paper currency, receivable at
the Society's store, was introduced, and proved most useful in trade
with the natives. In 1841 some slight difficulties with employes of
missions led the Society, while still retaining control of affairs, to
assert by resolution that the colony was a sovereign State. A revenue
law introduced in 1846 soon produced an income of about $1,200. In this
year began the trips of the "Liberia Packet," a vessel maintained by a
company formed to trade between Baltimore and _Harper_, as the town of
the colony was named, in honor of Robert Goodloe Harper. A certain
amount of trade was guaranteed and other aid given by the Society. In
1847 the justiciary was separated from the executive; a chief justice
and a system of courts were provided for.
The year 1852 ended the period during which the Society drew its annual
stipend from the State treasury; but the General Assembly was induced to
extend the provisions of the Act of 1831 for a further period of six
years. It may be as well to note here that in 1858 a further extension
was made for five years, the amount at the same time being reduced to
$5,000 per annum.[10] For twenty years the colony had flourished under
the care and good management of the Society. Prosperity now seemed
secure, and a spirit of discontent, a desire to throw off the yoke and
assume autonomy began to prevail. The great success following the
assumption of Independence by Liberia in 1847, and the recognition at
once obtained from the leading nations of Europe, naturally strengthened
the feeling. A committee of leading citizens petitioned the Society to
relinquish its authority, at the same time demanding or begging almost
everything else in its power to bestow. The Society was further asked by
its spoiled fosterling to continue to support schools, provide
physicians and medicine, remit debts, and finally, to grant a "loan" of
money to meet the expenses of government.[11]
The Board of Managers, though deeming the colony still unripe for
independence, generously determined to grant the request, as made
advisable by force of circumstances. Among other things it was feared
that the better class of colonists might be attracted toward the
independent State of Liberia. A sort of federal union with that State
was suggested, but found impracticable. A convention met and drafted a
Constitution, which was submitted to the Board. An agreement was reached
as to the conditions of the transfer of the Society's lands, etc. Both
were ratified by the people, and in May, 1854, Wm. A. Prout was elected
Governor. Other officials, senators and representatives, were chosen at
the same time.
The prosperity of the colony continued under the careful management of
Gov. Prout. On his death the Lieutenant-Governor, Wm. S. Drayton,
succeeded to his office. It was not long before the "rash and imprudent"
conduct of this official precipitated a serious conflict with the
natives. An expedition against them resulted in a demoralizing defeat,
with loss of artillery and twenty-six valuable lives. In consternation
an urgent appeal was sent to Monrovia. The treasury of the Republic was
exhausted from the effects of the uprising of the Sinou river tribes;
but Dr. Hall was fortunately present, and supplied the Government with a
loan from the funds of the Maryland Society. One hundred and fifteen
Liberian troops, under command of ex-President Roberts, were soon
embarked for Cape Palmas, and easily overawed the native chiefs, who
agreed to a fair adjustment of their grievances by treaty, February 26,
1857.