Science in the Kitchen. by Mrs. E. E. Kellogg

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Keep in a cool place until ready to cook, but do not place directly on
ice, as that will have a tendency to soften the flesh. Fresh fish should
never be allowed to soak in water. If salt fish is to be used, it should
be freshened by placing it skin-side up in cold water, and soaking for
several hours, changing the water frequently.

Frozen fish should be placed in cold water to thaw, and when thawed,
should be cooked immediately.

Fish is cooked by nearly all methods, but retains more nourishment when
broiled or baked. It should be thoroughly cooked, being both
indigestible and unpalatable when underdone.

Boiled fish is usually dependent for flavor upon some kind of rich sauce
so incompatible with healthy digestion that we do not recommend this
method.

_RECIPES._

BAKED FISH.--Select a perfectly fresh, properly dressed fish. Rinse
thoroughly and wipe dry. Fold it together and place in a dripping pan
with a cup of boiling water. Cook slowly and steadily until tender. A
fish weighing three or four pounds will require at least two hours. If
desired, the fish may be lightly dredged with flour, toward the last, as
it begins to brown.

BROILED FISH.--Thoroughly clean the fish, and if small, split down
the back. Fish of larger size should be cut into inch slices. Use a
double wire broiler well oiled with a bit of suet. Lay the fish, with
its thickest part next the center of the broiler, skin uppermost, and
broil over a bed of clear coals until the flesh-side is of an even
brown. The time required will vary, according to the size of the fish,
from five to twenty minutes; then turn and brown on the other side. If
the fish be very thick, when both sides are browned, put the broiler in
the oven over a dripping pan and cook until done.

MEAT SOUP.

Soups made from meat require first the preparation of a special material
called _stock_, a liquid foundation upon which to begin the soup.

Beef, veal, mutton, and poultry are all made into stock in the same
manner, so that general rules for its preparation will be sufficient for
all meat soups.

The principal constituents of meat and bones, the material from which
stock is compounded, are fiber, albuminous elements, gelatinous
substances, and flavoring matters. The albuminous elements are found
only in the flesh. The gelatinous substance found in bones, skin, and
tendons, is almost devoid of nutriment. In selecting material for stock,
therefore, it is well to remember that the larger the proportion of lean
meat used, the more nutritious will be the soup.

But little else than gelatine is obtained from the bones, and although
serviceable in giving consistency, a soup made principally from bones is
not valuable as a food. The amount of bone used for soup should never
exceed the flesh material in weight. The bones, trimmings, and remnants
of steaks, chops, and roasts may be advantageously utilized for soups.
Bits of roast meat and roast gravies are especially serviceable
material, since they are rich in the flavoring elements of meat. It
should be remembered, however, that these flavoring matters are chiefly
excrementitious or waste substances, derived from the venous blood of
the animal.

The greatest care must be observed to keep the scraps perfectly sweet
and fresh until needed, as stale meat is exceedingly unwholesome. If the
scraps are mostly cooked meats and bones, a small portion of raw, lean
meat should be used with them; it need not be of the choicest quality;
tough, coarse meat, when fresh and good, can be advantageously used for
soup stock.

If fresh material is to be procured, select for beef soups a piece from
the shin or lower round; the same choice of pieces may be made of veal;
of mutton, pieces from the forequarter and neck are best.

In preparing meat for soup, if it is soiled, scrub the outside
thoroughly with a clean cloth wet in cold water, or cut away the soiled
portion. Break the bones into as small pieces as convenient; cut the
meat into inch dice, remove the marrow from the bones, and put it aside.
If added to the stock, it will make it greasy.

Having selected proper material and prepared it for use, the next step
is to extract the juices. To do this put it into cold water, bring very
gradually to the boiling point,--an hour is not too long for
this,--then cook slowly but continuously. In the observation of these
simple measures lies the secret of success in stock-making.

The albuminous elements of the meat, which are similar in character to
the white of an egg, are readily dissolved in cold or tepid water, but
boiling water coagulates them. If the meat is put into boiling water,
the albumen coagulates, or hardens, forming a sort of crust on the
outside of the meat, which prevents the inner juices from escaping; on
the contrary, if the meat is put to cook in cold water, and is gradually
raised to the boiling point, the soaking and simmering will easily
extract and dissolve the juices.

Salt likewise hinders the extraction of the meat juices, and should not
be added to stock during its preparation.

The best utensil for use in the preparation of stock is a soup digester.
This is a porcelain-lined kettle, resting on standards, with a cover
fitting closely into a groove, so that no steam can escape except
through a valve in the top of the cover. In this the meat can be placed
and allowed to cook for hours without burning. An ordinary granite-ware
kettle with tightly fitting cover set on a stove ring or brick, answers
quite well. It should, however, be kept entirely for this purpose. A
double boiler is also suitable.

The correct proportion of water is to be used is about one quart to each
pound of meat and bones, though this will vary somewhat with the
material and the length of time required for cooking. The scum which is
thrown to the surface of the water during the cooking process is
composed of blood and other impurities, and should be removed as rapidly
as it rises. If allowed to remain after the water reaches the boiling
point, it will become incorporated into the stock and injure it in
flavor and wholesomeness.

If the meat and bones are well cut and broken, the juices ought to be
all extracted, with proper cooking, in three or four hours. Longer
cooking will render the stock thicker and more gelatinous but not more
nutritious, and too long cooking will detract from its flavor. As soon
as the meat will fall from the bones, the stock should be removed from
the pot and strained at once.

A good way to strain stock is to place a colander over an earthen crock
or jar (the colander should fit inside the jar), with a cloth strainer
within the colander. Then dip the contents of the stock kettle into the
colander, and leave it there to drain for fifteen or twenty minutes. Do
not squeeze the cloth, and when well drained, throw the scraps away.

[Illustration: Arrangement for Straining Stock.]

French cooks, with their propensity for economy, sometimes select a good
quality of beef, cook it so as to retain a portion of the juices in the
meat, and make it serve both for preparing the soup and for boiled beef
on the bill of fare. The meat is not cut up, but is heated quickly and
removed as soon as tender, so that only part of the juices are
extracted.

Set the stock where it will become cold. The more rapidly it cools, the
more delicate will be its flavor, and the better it will keep. The fat
will rise to the surface, and can be easily removed when desired. If the
quantity of fat in the material used was considerable, a solid cake will
cover the top. This fat, by excluding the air, helps keep the stock
sweet, and should not be removed until the stock is needed.

If only a portion is to be used at one time, the remainder with the fat
should be reheated and cooled, that a new crust may be formed. In
winter, stock may be kept several days, if care is thus taken to reheat
it. In summer, unless kept in a very cold place, it will spoil in a few
hours.

Soup should never be greasy, and hence, before using the stock, every
particle of the fat should be removed. To accomplish this, loosen the
cake of fat from the dish with a knife, and if solid, it will sometimes
come off whole; if soft, remove all that is possible without cutting
into the stock, and afterwards wipe the top of the jellied stock with a
cloth wrung out of very hot water, which will readily absorb any
lingering portion of fat. If the stock is not jellied, skim off all the
fat possible, and then turn the stock through a napkin wrung out of ice
water. This will harden the grease, which will adhere to the napkin. It
is always better to prepare stock long enough before it is needed to
allow it to become perfectly cold; if, however, it is necessary to use
the stock very soon after it is prepared, the fat may be quickly
hardened by turning the stock into a dripping pan or some other shallow
dish, and placing it on ice in a cool place; if there is no time for
this, strain several times through a napkin wrung out of ice-cold water,
removing the particles of fat each time and wringing the cloth anew
before straining again. A little cold water poured into hot stock will
also cause the grease to rise so that it can be easily skimmed off; but
this method weakens the stock.

Stock may be prepared from one kind of meat only, or from two or more
different kinds mixed together. Chicken stock is generally conceded to
be better if a small portion of beef is combined with the fowl. Beef and
veal are largely used together; but mutton on account of its strong
flavor is better used alone.

Stock, when prepared from a single kind of meat, is termed simple stock
or broth. When prepared from two or more kinds of flesh cooked together,
or when stock prepared separately from different kinds of meat are mixed
together, the result is termed compound stock or double broth. With
either of these stocks as a foundation, an innumerable variety of soups
may be prepared, either by serving them as plain broth or by the
addition of some of the various grains and vegetables, the distinctive
name of each soup being given it according to its principal solid
ingredient.

TO CLARIFY SOUP STOCK.--Having removed all the fat from the stock,
add to it before reheating, the shell of an egg, and the whole of one
egg well beaten, with a little cold water, for every three pints of
soup. Place the soup over the fire and stir it constantly to keep the
egg from setting until it is hot. Simmer for fifteen minutes, removing
the scum as it rises, and strain through a flannel cloth or napkin laid
in a colander. It is also a good plan to place a fine wire strainer on
the napkin to catch the shells and scum. Do not squeeze the cloth or
stir the liquid with a spoon to hasten the straining process. If the
cloth is clogged so that the stock does not run through well, carefully
change it in the colander so that the liquid will run down upon a clean
portion. When strained, it may be reheated, seasoned, and served as
clear soup.

_RECIPES._

ASPARAGUS SOUP.--This soup is prepared in every way like the one on
page 276, except that while stock made from veal is used instead of
milk. Green pea soup, celery soup, green corn soup, and green bean soup
may be prepared according to the recipes already given for these soups
by substituting for milk the same quantity of the stock of veal or
chicken.

BARLEY, RICE, SAGO, OR TAPIOCA SOUP.--Any kind of stock may be used
in making these soups, though chicken and mutton stock are generally
considered preferable. Prepare the grains, the sago, or the tapioca, by
steaming or boiling till well cooked, and add to the stock, which should
be at boiling temperature. Season and serve.

CARAMEL FOR COLORING SOUP BROWN.--Melt a half pint of sugar and one
tablespoonful of water in a saucepan over the fire; stir constantly
until it is of a dark brown color; then add a half pint of boiling
water, simmer ten minutes, strain, and put into an air-tight can or
bottle. When needed, mix such a quantity with the soup as will give the
desired degree of color.

JULIENNE SOUP.--Take an equal proportion of carrot, parsnip,
turnip, celery, and string beans, cut into thin pieces of inch lengths,
sufficient to make one pint. Simmer the vegetables gently in a small
quantity of water until tender, but not long enough to destroy their
shape. Heat a quart of clear stock to boiling, add vegetables, salt to
taste, and serve.

Other vegetables, as peas, asparagus, etc. may be used in the season.
Sometimes the vegetables are cut into dice or fancy shapes with a
vegetable cutter. It makes little difference about the shape, so that
the pieces are small and uniform in size. Such vegetables as potatoes,
carrots, or turnips, when used for soups, are easiest cut, after paring
in the usual manner, by taking the vegetable in the left hand, holding
it on the table or board between thumb and finger, and with the right
hand cutting downward in even slices not over one third of an inch wide,
to within a quarter of an inch of the bottom. Turn the vegetable and
repeat the process, cutting across the first slices. Again lay the
vegetable on its side, and make a third series of cuts, which will
divide it into cubes. If several kinds of vegetables are used, those
which require a longer time for cooking should be cut into smaller
pieces.

TOMATO SOUP.--Into two quarts of boiling beef stock stir a
teaspoonful of cornstarch well braided with a little cold water, and a
pint of strained, stewed tomatoes. Boil a few minutes, and serve. A
teaspoonful of sugar may also be added, if desired.

WHITE SOUP.--White soups are made from veal or chicken stock,
seasoned with cream, flavored with onion or celery, and thickened with
cornstarch or flour.

VERMICELLI OR MACARONI SOUPS.--Drop into boiling water and cook the
macaroni about one hour, the vermicelli ten minutes. Drain well, dash
cold water through them to separate the pieces, which are apt to stick
together, and add to boiling stock (beef and veal are preferable) in the
proportion of a pint of cooked macaroni or vermicelli to a quart of
soup. Salt to taste and serve.

PUREE WITH CHICKEN.--Take a quart of chicken stock from which the
fat has been removed. Add a stalk or two of celery cut into
finger-lengths, and a slice of onion, and put to boil. Beat together the
mashed yolk of two hard boiled eggs, and a half cup of sweet cream. Chop
the white meat of the chicken until fine as meal and beat with the egg
mixture. Add slowly a cup and a half of hot milk. Remove the celery and
onion from the hot stock, and stir all together. Boil up, salt to taste,
and serve. If too thick, a little more stock or milk can be added.

TAPIOCA CREAM SOUP.--Soak two tablespoonfuls of tapioca over night.
Heat a quart of stock prepared from the white meat of chicken, to
boiling, in a saucepan. Then stir the tapioca in gradually. Move the
saucepan to the side of the range where it will simmer till the tapioca
is transparent. Have ready in a large dish a mixture prepared by beating
together very thoroughly the yolks of three eggs and four tablespoonfuls
of sweet cream. When the tapioca is clear, remove the stock from the
range and pour it very gradually onto the egg mixture, stirring briskly
all the time, so that the egg will not curdle. Season with salt if
desired. The soup may be returned to the stove and warmed before serving
if necessary, but it must not be boiled or allowed to stand a long time.

TABLE TOPICS.

Animal food is one of the greatest means by which the pure sentiment
of the race is depressed.--_Alcott._

An English medical author says, "It is no doubt true that the
constant use of animal food disqualifies the mind for literary
application. We can scarcely imagine a philosopher living on horse
flesh like a Tartar, or on buffalo meat like an Indian; and it is a
fact that these tribes appear incapable of civilization until they
acquire the habit of using a less stimulating diet, and begin to
cultivate the fruits of the earth for their own use. The difference,
in the success of Christian missions, between such people and those
whose chief sustenance is farinaceous food, is very striking and
worthy of especial notice. In the East, and in Polynesia, literature
and Christian doctrines are seized upon with avidity. But in vain
were the most earnest labors of the best men to introduce reading
and writing among the American Indians until they had first been
taught to grow corn and to eat bread."

An American gentleman traveling in the East met a Brahmin priest,
who refused to shake hands with him for fear of pollution. The
reason he assigned was that Americans eat hogs. Said the priest,
"Why, I have heard that in America they put hogs' flesh in barrels
and eat it after it has been dead six months! Horrible!"

Pork is by no means a favorite food in Scotland. King James is said
to have abhorred pork almost as much as he did tobacco. He said, "If
I were to give a banquet to the devil, I would provide a loin of
pork and a poll of ling, with a pipe of tobacco for digestion!"
--_Scott._

The Hindu would as soon think of becoming a cannibal as of eating
swine's flesh. It is stated that the Indian mutiny so frightful in
its results originated in a fear among the Sepoys that they would be
forced to eat pork. A lady in India had an amusing experience which
illustrates the Hindu sentiment on the subject of pig. Arriving late
at a grand dinner, she and her husband saw the first course being
carried in as they went down the hall. A row of khitmutgars was
drawn up, waiting to follow the dish into the dining-room, and serve
their respective employers; as a dish of ham was carried by, each
man gravely and deliberately spat upon it! Needless to say, Mrs. B.
and her lord waited for the second course.

Both the ancient Syrians and Egyptians abstained from flesh-eating
out of dread and abhorrence, and when the latter would represent any
thing as odious or disagreeable by hieroglyphics, they painted a
fish.

Yes, Agassiz does recommend authors to eat fish because the
phosphorus in it makes brains. So far you are correct. But I cannot
help you to a decision about the amount you need to eat--at least
with certainty. If the specimen composition you send is about your
fair usual average, I should judge that perhaps a couple of whales
would be all you want for the present; not the largest kind, but
simply good, middling-sized whales!--_Mark Twain's Letter to a Young
Author._

FOOD FOR THE SICK

[Illustration: Food for the Sick]

There is no branch of the culinary art which requires more skill than
that of preparing food for the sick and feeble. The purpose of food at
all times is to supply material for repairing--the waste which is
constantly be chosen with reference to its nutritive value. But during
illness and convalescence, when the waste is often much greater and the
vital powers less active, it is of the utmost importance that the food
should be of such a character as will supply the proper nutrition. Nor
is this all; an article of food may contain all the elements of
nutrition in such proportions as to render it a wholesome food for those
in health, and not be a proper food for the sick, for the reason that
its conversion into blood and tissue lays too great a tax upon the
digestive organs. Food for the sick should be palatable, nutritious and
easily assimilated. To discriminate as to what food will supply these
requisites, one must possess some knowledge of dietetics and physiology,
as well as of the nature of the illness with which the patient is
suffering; and such a knowledge ought to be part of the education of
every woman, no matter to what class of society she belongs.

There are no special dishes suitable alike for all cases. Hot buttered
toast, tea, rich jellies, and other dainties so commonly served to the
sick, are usually the very worst articles of diet of which they could
partake. As a general rule, elaborate dishes are not suitable.

Well-cooked gruel, a nicely broiled steak, a glass of milk, or some
refreshing drink often serve far better than foods which combine a
greater variety of ingredients, and require more extensive preparation.
The simplest foods are always the best, because the most readily
assimilated.

Scrupulous neatness and care in all the minute particulars of the
cooking and serving of food for invalids, will add much to its
palatableness. The clean napkin on the tray, the bright silver, and
dainty china plate, with perhaps a sprig of leaves and flowers beside
it, thinly sliced bread, toast or cracker, and the light cup partly
filled with hot gruel, are far more appetizing to the invalid than
coarse ware, thickly cut bread, and an overflowing cup of gruel, though
the cooking may be just as perfect. Anything that suggests excess or
weight fatigues the sick. The appearance of milk served in a bowl, water
in a mug, beef-tea in a saucer, though seemingly a trivial thing, is
often sufficient to remove all desire for food.

So far as practicable, the wants of the patient should be anticipated,
and the meal served, a surprise. The capricious appetite of an invalid
may sometimes be coaxed by arranging his simple food upon a tray so
planned that in the napery and service-ware used, some one particular
color predominates, and if this color be selected to accord or harmonize
as far as possible with the food allowed, the _tout ensemble_ presents a
pleasing fancy, which will tempt the eye, and through its influence, the
appetite of the patient. For example: an invalid whose dietary must
consist of fruit and grains, might be served to a "purple" dinner, with
bill of fare including a fresh, cool bunch of purple grapes, a glass of
unfermented grape juice, a saucer of blackberry mush, a plate of nicely
toasted wafers, Graham puffs or zwieback, with stewed prunes, or a
slice of prune toast served on dishes decorated with purple. Tie the
napkin with a bow of purple ribbon, and place a bunch of purple pansies
just within its folds. The monotonous regimen of a poor dyspeptic which
poached eggs, beaten biscuit, wheat gluten, eggnog, with, perhaps,
stewed peaches or an orange, are served on gilt-band china with a spray
of goldenrod, a bunch of marigolds, or a water-lily to give an
additional charm.

Foods which are ordered to be served hot, should be _hot,_ not merely
warm, when they reach the patient. To facilitate this, let the dish in
which the food is to be served, stand in hot water for a few moments;
take out, wipe dry, turn in the hot food, place on the tray, and serve.
An oil stove, alcohol lamp, or a pocket stove is very convenient for
warming gruels, broths and other similar foods, as either can be made
ready for use in a moment, and will heat the small quantity of food
necessary for an invalid in one fourth the time in which it could be
accomplished over the range, if necessary to reduce the fire.

In the preparation of food for the sick, a scrupulously clean dish for
cooking is of the first importance. It is a good plan in every household
to reserve one or two cooking utensils for this purpose, and not be
obliged to depend upon those in daily use. Utensils used for the cooking
of fruits, vegetables, meat, etc., unless cleaned with the utmost call
will sometimes impart a sufficiently unpleasant flavor to the food to
render it wholly unpalatable to an invalid whose senses are
preternaturally acute.

GRUELS

These simple foods, the base of which is usually some one of the grains,
play an important part in the dietary for the sick, if properly
prepared; but the sloppy messes sometimes termed gruel, the chief merit
of which appears to be that they "are prepared in ten minutes," are
scarcely better than nothing at all. Like other dishes prepared from the
grains, gruel needs a long, continuous cooking. When done, it should be
the very essence of the grain, possessing all its nutritive qualities,
but in such form as to be readily assimilated. For the making of gruels,
as for the cooking of grains for any other purpose, the double boiler is
the best utensil.

[Illustration: Gruel Strainer.]

If it is desirable to strain the gruel before serving, have a fine wire
strainer of a size to stand conveniently within a large bowl or basin,
turn the gruel into this, and rub it through with a wooden or silver
spoon, using a second spoon, if necessary, to remove that which hangs
beneath the sieve. On no account use the first spoon for the latter
operation, as by so doing one is apt to get some of the hulls into the
gruel and destroy its smoothness. When as much of the gruel as possible
has been rubbed through the sieve, pour the strained liquid into a clean
dish, reheat to boiling, and season as desired before serving. An
extension strainer which can be fitted over any sized dish is also
serviceable for straining gruels.