Composition Rhetoric by Stratton D. Brooks

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+10. Rule for the Use of the Exclamation Mark.+--Interjections and
exclamatory words and expressions should be followed by the exclamation
mark. Sometimes the exclamatory word is only a part of the whole
exclamation. In this case, the exclamatory word should be followed by a
comma, and the entire exclamation by an exclamation mark.

See, how the lightning flashes!

+11. Rules for the Use of the Dash.+--1. The dash is used to show sudden
changes in thought or breaks in speech.

I can speak of this better when temptation comes my way--if it ever does.

2. The dash is often used in the place of commas or marks of parenthesis
to set off parenthetical expressions.

In the mountains of New York State this most valuable tree--the spruce--
abounds.

3. The dash, either alone or in connection with the comma, is used to
point out that part of a sentence on which special stress is to be placed.

I saw unpruned fruit trees, broken fences, and farm implements, rusting in
the rain--all evidences of wasted time.

4. The dash is sometimes used with the colon before long quotations,
before an enumeration of things, or before a formally introduced
statement.

+12. Rules for the Use of Quotation Marks.+--1. Quotation marks are used
to inclose direct quotations.

"In all the great affairs of life one must run some risk," she remarked.

2. A quotation within a quotation is usually indicated by single quotation
marks.

"Can you tell me where I can find 'Rienzi's Address'?" asked a young lady
of a clerk in Brooklyn.

3. When a quotation is interrupted by parenthetical expressions, the
different parts of the quotation should be inclosed in quotation marks.

"Bring forth," cried the monarch, "the vessels of gold."

4. When the quotation consists of several paragraphs, the quotation marks
are placed at the beginning of each paragraph and at the close of the last
one.

+13. Rule for the Use of the Apostrophe.+--The apostrophe is used to
denote the possessive case, to indicate the omission of letters, and to
form the plural of signs, figures, and letters.

In the teacher's copy book you will find several fancy A's and 3's which
can't be distinguished from engravings.

II. REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

THE SENTENCE

+14. English grammar+ is the study of the forms of English words and their
relationship to one another as they appear in sentences. A _sentence_ is a
group of words that expresses a complete thought.

+15. Elements of a Sentence.+--The elements of a sentence, as regards the
office that they perform, are the _subject_ and the _predicate_. The
_subject_ is that about which something is asserted, and the _predicate_
is that which asserts something about the subject.

Some predicates may consist of a single word or word-group, able in itself
to complete a sentence: [The thrush _sings_. The thrush _has been
singing_]. Some require a following word or words: [William struck
_John_ (object complement, or object). Edward became _king_ (attribute
complement). The people made Edward _king_ (objective complement)].

The necessary parts of a sentence are: some name for the object of thought
(to which the general term _substantive_ may be given); some word or group
of words to make assertion concerning the substantive (general term,
_assertive_); and, in case of an incomplete assertive, one of the above
given completions of its meaning (object complement, attribute complement,
objective complement).

In addition to these necessary elements of the sentence, words or groups
of words may be added to make the meaning of any one of the elements more
exact. Such additions are known as _modifiers_. The word-groups which are
used as modifiers are the _phrase_ and the _clause_.

[The thrush, sings _in the pine woods_ (phrase). The wayfarer _who hears
the thrush_ is indeed fortunate (clause).]

Both the subject and the predicate may be unmodified:

[Bees buzz]; both may be modified: [The honey bees buzz in the clover];
one may be modified and the other unmodified: [Bees buzz in the clover].

The unmodified subject may be called the _simple subject_, or, merely, the
_subject_. If modified, it becomes the _complete subject_.

The assertive element, together with the attribute complement, if one is
present, may be called the _simple predicate_. If modified, it becomes the
_complete predicate_.

Some grammarians call the assertive element, alone, the _simple
predicate_; modified or completed, the _complete predicate_.

+16. Classification of Sentences as to Purpose.+--Sentences are classified
according to purpose into three classes: _declarative_, _interrogative_,
and _imperative_ sentences.

A _declarative_ sentence is one that makes a statement or declares
something: [Columbus crossed the Atlantic].

An _interrogative_ sentence is one that asks a question: [Who wrote
_Mother Goose_?].

An _imperative_ sentence is one that expresses a command or entreaty:
["Fling away ambition"].

Each kind of sentence may be of an exclamatory nature, and then the
sentence is said to be an _exclamatory_ sentence: [How happy all the
children are! (exclamatory declarative). "Who so base as be a slave?"
(exclamatory interrogative). "Heap high the farmer's wintry hoard!"
(exclamatory imperative)].

Notice that the exclamation point follows the declarative and imperative
forms, but the interrogative form is followed by the question mark.

WORDS AND THEIR OFFICES

+17. The Individual Elements+ of which every sentence is composed are
_words_. Every word is the sign of some idea. Each of the words _horse,
he, blue, speaks, merrily, at_, and _because_, has a certain naming value,
more or less definite, for the mind of the reader. Of these, _horse, blue,
he, merrily_, have a fairly vivid descriptive power. In the case of _at_
and _because_, the main office is, evidently, to express a relation
between other ideas: ["I am _at_ my post"], ["I go _because_ I must"]. The
word _speaks_ is less clearly a relational word; at first thought it would
seem to have only the office of picturing an activity. That it also fills
the office of a connective will be evident if we compare the following
sentences: He _speaks_ in public. He _is_ a public _speaker_. It is
evident that _speaks_ contains in itself the _naming_ value represented in
the word _speaker_, but also has the _connecting_ office fulfilled in the
second sentence by _is_.

All words have, therefore, a naming office, and some have in addition a
connecting or relational office.

PARTS OF SPEECH

+18. Parts of Speech.+--When we examine the different words in sentences
we find that, in spite of these fundamentally similar qualities, the words
are serving different purposes. This difference in purpose or use serves
as the basis for dividing words into eight classes, called Parts of
Speech. Use alone determines to which class a word in any given sentence
shall belong. Not only are single words so classified, but any part of
speech may be represented by a group of words. Such a group is either a
_phrase_ or a _clause_.

A _phrase_ is a group of words, containing neither subject nor predicate,
that is used as a single part of speech.

A _clause_ is a group of words, containing both subject and predicate,
that is used as part of a sentence. If used as a single part of speech, it
is called a _subordinate_, or _dependent_, clause. Some grammarians use the
word _clause_ for a subordinate statement only.

+19. Classification.+--The eight parts of speech may be classified as
follows:--

I. Substantives: nouns, pronouns.
II. Assertives: verbs.
III. Modifiers: adjectives, adverbs.
IV. Connectives: prepositions, conjunctions.
V. Interjections.

+20. Definitions.+--The parts of speech may be defined as
follows:--

(1) A _noun_ is a word used as a name.

(2) A _pronoun_ is a word used in place of a noun, designating a person,
place, or thing without naming it.

(3) An _adjective_ is a word that modifies a substantive.

(4) A _verb_ is a word that asserts something--action, state, or being---
concerning a substantive.

(5) An _adverb_ is a word that modifies a verb, adjective, or another
adverb.

(6) A _preposition_ is a word that shows the relation of the substantive
that follows it to some other word or words in the sentence.

(7) A _conjunction_ is a word that connects words or groups of words used
in the same way.

(8) An _interjection_ is a cry expressing emotion, but not forming part of
the sentence.

NOUNS

+21. Classes of Nouns.+--Nouns are divided into two general classes:
_proper_ nouns [Esther] and _common_ nouns [girl].

Common nouns include _abstract_ nouns [happiness] and _collective_ nouns
[army].

Any word mentioned merely _as a word_ is a noun: [_And_ is a conjunction].

+22. Inflection.+--A change in the form of a word to denote a change in
its meaning is termed _inflection_.

+23. Number.+--The most common inflection of the noun is that which shows
us whether the name denotes one or more than one. The power of the noun to
denote one or more than one is termed _number_. A noun that denotes but
one object is _singular_ in number. A noun that denotes more than one
object is _plural_ in number.

The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by adding _s_ and _es_ to
the singular [bank, banks; box, boxes].

Other points to be noted concerning the plural of nouns are as follows:--

1. The irregular plural in _en_ [child, children].

2. Formation of the plural by internal change [goose, geese].

3. Fourteen nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_ change the _f_ or _fe_ into _yes_
[leaf, leaves].

4. Nouns ending in _y_, preceded by a consonant, change the _y_ to _i_ and
add _es_ [enemy, enemies].

5. Letters, figures, signs, etc., form their plural by adding '_s_:[You
have used too many _i_'s].

6. Nouns taken from other languages usually form their plurals according
to the laws of those languages [phenomenon, phenomena].

7. A few nouns in our language do not change their form to denote number.
(_a_) Some nouns have the same form, for both the singular and the
plural [sheep, deer].
(_b_) Some nouns are used only in the plural [scissors, thanks].
(_c_) Some nouns have no plurals [pride, flesh].
(_d_) Some nouns, plural in form, have a singular meaning [measles,
news, politics].

8. Compound nouns usually form their plural by pluralizing the noun part
of the compound [sister-in-law, sisters-in-law]. If the words of the
compound are both nouns, and are of equal importance, both are given a
plural ending [manservant, menservants]. When the compound is thought of
as a whole, the last part only is made plural [spoonful, spoonfuls].

9. Proper names usually form their plurals regularly. If they are
preceded by titles, they form their plurals either by pluralizing the
title or by pluralizing the name [The Misses Hunter or the Miss Hunters.
The Messrs. Keene or the two Mr. Keenes. The Masters Burke. The Mrs.
Harrisons.]

10. A few nouns have two plurals differing in meaning or use [cloth,
cloths, clothes; penny, pennies, pence].

+24. Case.+--Case is the relation that a noun or pronoun
bears to some other word in the sentence.

Inflection of nouns or pronouns for the purpose of denoting
case is termed _declension_. There are three cases in the English
language: the _nominative_, the _possessive_, and the _objective_; but
nouns show only two forms for each number, as the nominative and
objective cases have the same form.

+25. Formation of the Possessive.+--Nouns in the singular, and those in
the plural not already ending in _s_, form the possessive regularly by
adding '_s_ to the nominative [finger, finger's; geese, geese's].

In case the plural already ends in _s_, the possessive case adds only the
apostrophe [girls'].

A few singular nouns add only the apostrophe, when the addition of the
'_s_ would make an unpleasant sound [Moses'].

Compound nouns form the possessive case by adding '_s_ to the last word.
This is also the rule when two names denoting joint ownership are used:
[Bradbury and Emery's Algebra].

Notice that in the following expression the '_s_ is affixed to the second
noun only: [My sister Martha's book].

Names of inanimate objects usually substitute prepositional phrases to
denote possession: [The hardness _of the rock_, not The rock's hardness].

+26. Gender.+--Gender is the power of nouns and pronouns to denote sex.
Nouns or pronouns denoting males are of the _masculine_ gender; those
denoting females are of the _feminine_ gender; and those denoting things
without animal life are of the _neuter_ gender.

+27. Person.+--Person is the power of one class of pronouns to show
whether the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken
of is designated. According to the person denoted, the pronoun is said to
be in the _first, second_, or _third_ person. Nouns and many pronouns are
not inflected for person, but most grammarians attribute person to them
because the context of the sentence in which they are used shows what
persons they represent.

+28. Constructions of Nouns.+--The following are the usual constructions
of nouns:--

(_a_) The _possessive_ case of the noun denotes possession.

(_b_) Nouns in the _nominative_ case are used as follows:--

1. As the subject of a verb: [The western _sky_ is all aflame]

2. As an attribute complement: [Autumn is the most gorgeous _season_ of
the year].

3. In an exclamation: [Alas, poor _soul_, it could not be!].

4. In direct address: [O hush thee, my _baby_!].

5. Absolutely: [The _rain_ being over, the grass twinkled in the
sunshine].

6. As a noun in apposition with a nominative: [Columbus; a _native_ of
Genoa, discovered America].

(_c_) Nouns in the _objective_ case are used as follows:--

1. As the direct object of a verb, termed either the direct object or the
object complement: [I saw a _host_ of golden daffodils].

2. As the objective complement: [They crowned him _king_].

3. As the indirect object of a verb: [We gave _Ethel_ a ring].

4. As the object of a preposition: [John Smith explored the coast of _New
England_].

5. As the subject of an infinitive: [He commanded _the man_ (_him_)to go
without delay].

6. As the attribute of an expressed subject of the infinitive _to be_: [I
thought it to be _John_ (_him_)].

7. As an adverbial noun: [He came last _week_].

8. As a noun in apposition with an object: [Stanley found Livingstone,
the great _explorer_].

+29. Equivalents for Nouns.+

1. Pronoun: [John gave _his_ father a book for Christmas].

2. Adjective: [The _good_ alone are truly great].

3. Adverb: [I do not understand the _whys_ and _wherefores_ of the
process].

4. A gerund, or infinitive in _ing_: [_Seeing_ is _believing_].

5. An infinitive or infinitive phrase: [With him, _to think_ is _to
act_].

6. Clause: [It is hard for me to believe _that she took the money_]. Noun
clauses may be used as subject, object, attribute complement, and
appositive.

7. A prepositional phrase: [_Over the fence_ is out].

PRONOUNS

+30. Antecedent.+--The most common equivalent for a noun is the pronoun.
The substantive for which the pronoun is an equivalent is called the
_antecedent_, and with this antecedent the pronoun must agree in _person,
number_, and _gender_, but not necessarily in _case_.

+31. Classes of Pronouns.+--Pronouns are commonly divided into five
classes, and sometimes a sixth class is added: (1) personal pronouns, (2)
relative pronouns, (3) interrogative pronouns, (4) demonstrative pronouns,
(5) adjective pronouns,(6) indefinite pronouns (not always added).

+32. Personal Pronouns.+--Personal pronouns are so called because they
show by their form whether they refer to the first, the second, or the
third person. There are five personal pronouns in common use: _I, you, he,
she_, and _it_.

+33. Constructions of Personal Pronouns.+--The personal pronouns are used
in the same ways in which nouns are used. Besides the regular uses that the
personal pronoun has, there are some special uses that should be
understood.

1. The word _it_ is often used in an indefinite way at the beginning of a
sentence: [It snows]. When so used, it has no antecedent, and we say it is
used _impersonally_.

2. The pronoun _it_ is often used as the _grammatical_ subject of a
sentence in which the _logical_ subject is found after the predicate verb:
[_It_ is impossible for us to go]. When so used the pronoun _it_ is called
an _expletive. There_ is used in the same way.

+34. Cautions and Suggestions.+

1. Be careful not to use the apostrophe in the possessive forms _its,
yours, ours_, and _theirs_.

2. Be careful to use the nominative form of a pronoun used as an attribute
complement: [It is _I_; it is _they_].

3. Be sure that the pronoun agrees in number with its antecedent. One of
the most common violations of this rule is in using _their_ in such
sentences as the following:--Every boy and girl must arrange _his_ desk.
Who has lost _his_ book? The use of _every_ and the form _has_ obliges us
to make the possessive pronouns singular.

_His_ may be regarded as applying to females as well as males, where it is
convenient not to use the expression _his or her_.

4. The so-called subject of an infinitive is always in the objective case:
[I asked _him_ to go].

5. The attribute complement will agree in case with the subject of the
verb. Hence the attribute complement of an infinitive is in the objective
case: [I knew it (obj.) to be _him_]; but the attribute complement of the
subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case: [I knew it (nom.) was
_he_].

6. Words should be so arranged in a sentence that there will be no doubt
in the mind concerning the antecedent of the pronoun.

7. Do not use the personal pronoun form _them_ for the adjective _those_:
[_Those_ books are mine].

+35. Compound Personal Pronouns.+--To the personal pronouns _my, our,
your, him, her, it_, and _them_, the syllables _self_ (singular) and
_selves_ (plural) may be added, thus forming what are termed _compound
personal_ pronouns. These pronouns have only two uses:--

1. They are used for emphasis: [He _himself_ is an authority on the
subject].

2. They are also used reflexively: [The boy injured _himself_].

+36. The Relative or Conjunctive Pronouns.+--The pronouns _who, which,
what_ (= that which), _that_, and _as_ (after _such_) are more than
equivalents for nouns, inasmuch as they serve as connectives. They are
often named _relative pronouns_ because they relate to some antecedent
either expressed or implied; they are equally well named _conjunctive
pronouns_ because they are used as connectives. They introduce subordinate
clauses only; these clauses are called _relative clauses_, and since they
modify substantives, are also called _adjective clauses_.

+37. Uses of Relative Pronouns.+--_Who_ is used to represent persons, and
objects or ideas personified; _which_ is used to represent things; _that_
and _as_ are used to represent both persons and things.

When a clause is used _for the purpose_ of pointing out some particular
person, object, or idea, it is usually introduced by _that_; but when the
clause supplies an additional thought, _who_ or _which_ is more frequently
used. The former is called a _restrictive clause_, and the latter, a
_non-restrictive clause_.

[The boy that broke his leg has fully recovered (restrictive).] Note the
omission of the comma before _that_. [My eldest brother, who is now in
England, will return by June (non-restrictive).] Note the inclosure of the
clause in commas. See Appendix 5, rule 10.

In the first sentence it is evident that the intent of the writer is to
separate, in thought, _the boy that broke his leg_ from all other boys.
Although the clause does indeed describe the boy's condition, it does so
_for the purpose_ of _limiting_ or _restricting_ thought to one especial
boy among many. In the second sentence the especial person meant is
indicated by the word _eldest_. The clause, _who is now in England_, is
put in for the sake of giving an additional bit of information.

+38. Constructions of Relative Pronouns.+--Relative pronouns may be used
as subject, object, object of a preposition, subject of an infinitive, and
possessive modifier.

The relative pronoun is regarded as agreeing in person with its
antecedent. Its verb, therefore, takes the person of the antecedent: [_I_,
who _am_ your friend, will assist you].

The case of the relative is determined by its construction in the clause
in which it is found: [He _whom_ the president appointed was fitted for
the position].

+39. Compound Relative Pronouns.+--The compound relative pronouns are
formed by adding _ever_ and _soever_ to the relative pronouns _who,
which_, and _what_. These have the constructions of the simple relatives,
and the same rules hold about person and case: [Give it to _whoever_
wishes it. Give it to _whomever_ you see].

+40. Interrogative Pronouns.+--The pronouns _who, which_, and _what_ are
used to ask questions, and when so used, are called _interrogative_
pronouns. _Who_ refers to persons; _what_, to things; and _which_, to
persons or things. Like the relatives _who_ has three case forms; _which_
and _what_ are uninflected.

The implied question in the sentence, I know whom you saw, is, Whom did
you see? The introductory _whom_ is an interrogative pronoun, and the
clause itself is called an _indirect question_.

The words _which, what_, and _whose_ may also be used as modifiers of
substantives, and when so used they are called _interrogative adjectives_:
["_What_ manner of man is this?" _Whose_ child is this? _Which_ book
did you choose?].

+41. Demonstrative Pronouns.+--_This_ and _that_, with their plurals
_these_ and _those_, are called _demonstrative pronouns_, because they
point out individual persons or things.

+42. Indefinite Pronouns.+--Some pronouns, as _each, either, some, any,
many, such_, etc., are indefinite in character. Many indefinites may be
used either as pronouns or adjectives. Of the indefinites only two, _one_
and _other_, are inflected.

SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL

NOM. AND OBJ. one ones other others

POSS. one's ones' other's others'

+43. Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives.+--Many words, as has
been noted already, are either pronouns or adjectives according to the
office that they perform. If the noun is expressed, the word in question
is called a _pronominal adjective_; but if the noun is omitted so that the
word in question takes its place, it is called an _adjective pronoun_.
[_That_ house is white (adjective). _That_ is the same house (pronoun).]

ADJECTIVES

+44. Classes of Adjectives.+--There are two general classes of adjectives:
the _descriptive_ [blue, high, etc.], so called because they describe, and
the _limiting_ or _definitive_ adjectives [yonder, three, that, etc.], so
called because they limit or define. It is, of course, true that any
adjective which describes a noun limits its meaning; but the adjective is
named from its descriptive power, not from its limiting power. A very
large per cent of all adjectives belong to the first class,--_descriptive_
adjectives. Proper adjectives and _participial_ adjectives form a small
part of this large class: [_European_ countries. A _running_ brook].

+45. Limiting or Definitive Adjectives.+--The _limiting_ adjectives
include the various classes of _pronominal adjectives_ (all of which have
been mentioned under pronouns), the _articles_ (_a_, _an_, and _the_),
and adjectives denoting _place_ and _number_.

+46. Comparison of Adjectives.+--With the exception of the words _this_
and _that_, adjectives are not inflected for number, and none are
inflected for case. Many of them, however, change their form to express a
difference in degree. This change of form is called _comparison_. There
are three degrees of comparison: the _positive_, the _comparative_, and
the _superlative_. Adjectives are regularly compared by adding the
syllables _er_ and _est_ to the positive to form the comparative and
superlative degrees. In some cases, especially in the case of adjectives
of more than one syllable, the adverbs _more_ and _most_ are placed before
the positive degree in order to form the other two degrees [long, longer,
longest; beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful].

+47. Irregular Comparison of Adjectives.+--A few adjectives are compared
irregularly. These adjectives are in common use and we should be familiar
with the correct forms.

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

bad }
evil } worse worst
ill }

far farther farthest

good } better best
well }

fore former { foremost
{ first

late { later { latest
{ latter { last

little less least

many } more most
much }

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