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Composition Rhetoric by Stratton D. Brooks

S >> Stratton D. Brooks >> Composition Rhetoric




[Footnote 1: Used only in the passive sense of "born into the world."]
[Footnote 2: _Drunken_ is an adjective.]


CAUTION.--Do not confuse the preterite with the past participle. Always
use the past participle form in the compound tenses.



ADVERBS


+71. Classes of Adverbs.+--Adverbs vary much as to their use and meaning.
It is therefore impossible to make a very accurate classification, but we
may divide them, according to use, into _limiting, interrogative_, and
_conjunctive_ adverbs.

_Limiting_ adverbs modify the meaning of verbs, etc.: [He rows _well_].

_Interrogative_ adverbs are used to ask questions: [_When_ shall you come?
He asked _where_ we were going (indirect question)].

_Conjunctive_ adverbs introduce clauses: [We went to the seashore, _where_
we stayed a month]. Here _where_ is used as a connective and also as a
modifier of _stayed_.

Conjunctive adverbs introduce the following kinds of clauses:

1. Adverbial clauses: [Go _where_ duty calls].

2. Adjective clauses: [This is the very spot _where_ I put them].

3. Noun clause: [I do not know _how_ he will succeed].

Adverbs may also be classified, according to meaning, into adverbs of
_manner, time, place_, and _degree_. The classification is not, however, a
rigid one.

Adverbs of _manner_ answer the question How? Most of these terminate in
_-ly_. A few, however, are identical in form with adjectives of like
meaning: [She sang very loud].

Adverbs of _time_ answer the question When?

Adverbs of _place_ answer the question Where? This class, together with
the preceding two classes, usually modify verbs.

_Adverbs of degree_ answer the question To what extent? These adverbs
modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.


+72. Phrasal Adverbs.+--Certain phrases, adverbial in character, cannot
easily be separated into parts. They have been called _phrased adverbs;_
as, arm-in-arm, now-a-days, etc.


+73. Inflection.+--Some adverbs, like adjectives, are compared for the
purpose of showing different degrees of quality or quantity.

The comparative and superlative degrees may be formed by adding the
syllables _er_ and _est_ to the positive degree. The great majority of
adverbs, however, make use of the words _more_ and _most_ or _less_
and _least_ to show a difference in degree: [Fast, faster, fastest;
skillfully, more skillfully, most skillfully; carefully, less carefully,
least carefully].

Some adverbs are compared irregularly:--

badly } worse worst
ill (evil)}
far } { farther { farthest
forth } { further { furthest
late later { latest
{ last
little less least
much more most
nigh nigher { nigher
{ next
well better best


+74. Suggestions and Cautions concerning the Use of Adverbs.+

1. Some words, as _fast, little, much, more_, and others, have the same
form for both adjective and adverb, and use alone can determine what part
of speech each is.

(Adjective) He is a fast driver. She looks well (in good health).

(Adverb) How fast he walks! I learned my lesson well.

2. Corresponding adjectives and adverbs usually have different forms which
should not be confused.

(Adjective) She is a good student.

(Adverb) He works well.

3. The adjective, and not the adverbial, form should be used after a
copulative verb, since adverbs cannot modify substantives: [I feel bad;
not, I feel badly].

4. Two negatives imply an affirmative. Hence only one should be used to
denote negation: [I have nothing to say. I have no patience with him].


+75. Equivalents for Adverbs.+

1. A phrase: [The child ran away _with great glee_].

2. A clause: [I will go canoeing _when the lake is calm_].

3. A noun: [Please come _home_. I will stay five _minutes_].



PREPOSITIONS


+76. Classes of Prepositions.+--The _simple_ prepositions are: _at, after,
against, but, by, down, for, from, in, of, off, over, on, since, through,
till, to, under, up_, and _with_.

Other prepositions are either derived or compound: such as, _underneath,
across, between, concerning_, and _notwithstanding_.


+77. Suggestions concerning the Use of Prepositions.+--Mistakes are
frequently made in the use of the preposition. This use cannot be fully
discussed here, but a partial list of words with the required preposition
will be given.


afraid _of_.
agree _with_ a person.
agree _to_ a proposal.
bestow _upon_.
compare _to_ (to show similarity).
compare _with_ (to show similarity or difference).
comply _with_.
conform _to_.
convenient _for_ or _to_.
correspond _to_ or _with_ (a thing).
correspond _with_ (a person).
dependent _on_.
differ _from_ (a person or thing).
differ _from_ or _with_ (an opinion).
different _from_.
disappointed _in_.
frightened _at_ or _by_.
glad _of_.
need _of_.
profit _by_.
scared _by_.
taste _of_ (food).
taste _for_ (art).
thirst _for_ or _after_.


_Like_, originally an adjective or adverb, is often, in some of its uses,
called a preposition. It governs the objective case, and should not be
used as a conjunction: [She looks like _me;_ not, She looks like I do].
The appropriate _conjunction_ here would be _as_: [She speaks _as_ I do].

The prepositions _in_ and _at_ denote rest or motion _in_ a place; _into_
denotes motion _toward_ a place: [He is _in_ the garden. He went _into_
the garden].


+78. Prepositional Phrases.+--The preposition, with its object, forms what
is termed a prepositional phrase. This phrase is _adjective_ in force when
it modifies a substantive; and _adverbial_, when it modifies a verb,
adjective, or other adverb: [In the cottage _by the sea_ (adjective). He
sat _on the bench_ (adverb)].

Some prepositions were originally adverbs; such as, _in, on, off, up_, and
_to_. Many of them are still used adverbially or as adverbial suffixes:
[The ship lay to. A storm came on].



CONJUNCTIONS


+79. Classes of Conjunctions.+--Conjunctions are divided according to
their use into two general classes: the _cooerdinate_ and the _subordinate_
conjunctions.

_Cooerdinate_ conjunctions are used to connect words, phrases, and clauses
of equal rank; _subordinate_ conjunctions connect clauses of unequal rank.

The principal cooerdinate conjunctions are _and, but, or, nor_, and _for_.
_And_ is said to be _copulative_ because it merely adds something to what
has just been said. Other conjunctions having a copulative use are _also,
besides, likewise, moreover_, and _too_; and the correlative conjunctions,
_both ... and, not only ... but also_, etc. These are termed _correlative_
because they occur together. _But_ is termed the _adversative_ cooerdinate
conjunction because it usually introduces something adverse to what has
already been said. Other words of an adversative nature are _yet, however,
nevertheless, only, notwithstanding_, and _still_. _Or_ is alternative in
its force. This conjunction implies that there is a choice to be made.

Other similar conjunctions are _either ... or, neither ... nor, or, else_.
_Either ... or_ and _neither ... nor_ are termed _correlative_
conjunctions, and they introduce alternatives. _For, because, such_, and
as are _cooerdinate_ conjunctions only in such a case as the following:
[She has been running, for she is out of breath].

Some of the most common conjunctions of the _subordinate_ type are those
of place and time, cause, condition, purpose, comparison, concession, and
result. _That_ introducing a subordinate clause may be called a
_substantive_ conjunction: [I knew _that_ I ought to go].

There are a number of subordinate conjunctions used in pairs which are
called _correlatives_. The principal pairs are _as ... so, as ... as, so
... as, if ... then, though ... yet_.


+80. Simple and Compound Sentences.+--In the first section of this review
the parts of a sentence were named as the _subject_ and _predicate_.

The _subject_ may itself consist of two parts joined by one of the
cooerdinating conjunctions: [Alice _and_ her cousin are here]. The
predicate may be formed in a similar fashion: [John played _and_ made
merry all day long]. Both subject and predicate may be so compounded:
[John _and_ Richard climbed the ladder _and_ jumped on the hay].

In all these cases the sentence, consisting as it does of but one subject
and one predicate, is said to be _simple_.

When two clauses--that is, two groups of words containing each a subject
and predicate--are united by a cooerdinate conjunction, the sentence is
said to be _compound_: [John wished to play Indian, _but_ Richard
preferred to play railroad].

The cooerdinating conjunction need not actually appear in the sentence. Its
omission is then indicated by the punctuation: [John wished to play
Indian; Richard preferred another game].


+81. Subordinate Conjunctions and Complex Sentences.+--A _subordinate_
conjunction is used to join a subordinate clause to a principal clause,
thus forming a _complex_ sentence. The test to be applied to a clause in
order to ascertain whether it is a subordinate clause, is this: if any
group of words in a sentence, containing a subject and predicate, fulfills
the office of some single part of speech, it is a _subordinate_ clause. In
the sentence, "I went because I knew that I must," the clause, "because I
knew that I must" states the reason for the action named in the main
clause. It, therefore, stands in _adverbial_ relation to the verb "went."
"That I must" is the object of "knew." It, therefore, stands in a
_substantive_ relation to the verb.

Subordinate clauses are often introduced by subordinate conjunctions
(sometimes by relative pronouns or adverbs); but, whenever such a
clause appears in a sentence, otherwise simple, the sentence is _complex_.
If it appears in a sentence otherwise compound, the sentence is
_compound-complex_.

The different types of subordinate clauses will be discussed later.



SENTENCE STRUCTURE


+82. Phrases.+--Phrases are classified both as to structure and use.

From the standpoint of structure, a phrase is classified from its
introductory word or words, as:--

1. _Prepositional_: [They were _in the temple_].

2. _Infinitive_: [He tried _to make us hear_].

3. _Participial_: [_Having finished my letter_].

Classified as to use, a phrase may be--

1. A _noun_: [_To be good is to be truly great_].

2. An _adjective_: [The horse is an animal _of much intelligence_].

3. An _adverb_: [He lives _in the city_].


+83. Clauses.+--It has been already shown that clauses may be either
principal or subordinate. A principal clause is sometimes defined as "one
that can stand alone," and is therefore independent of the rest of the
sentence. This statement is misleading, for, although true in most cases,
it does not hold in cases like the following:--

1. As the tree falls, so it must lie.

2. That sunshine is cheering, cannot be denied.

The genuine test for the subordinate clause is the one already given in
connection with the study of the subordinate conjunction. It must serve
the purpose of some single part of speech. All other clauses are principal
clauses.


+84. Classification of Subordinate Clauses.+--_A._ Subordinate clauses may
be classified into _substantive_ and _modifying_ clauses.

_Substantive clauses_ show the various substantive constructions. Thus:--

1. Subject: ["_Thou shalt not covet_," is the tenth commandment].

2. Object: [I know _what you wish_].

3. Appositive: [The truth _that the earth is spherical_ is generally
believed].

4. Attribute complement: [The truth is _that she is not well_].

_Modifying clauses_ show adjective and adverbial constructions.

Thus:--

1. Adjective: [The house _which you see_ is mine].

2. Adverb: [I will go _when_ it is possible].

_B._ Subordinate clauses may also be classified according to the
introductory word.

(_a_) Clauses introduced by _relative_ or _interrogative pronouns_: _who,
which, what, that_ (= who or which), _as_ (after such), and the compound
relatives, _whoever, whichever, whatever_ (the first three are both
relative and interrogative): [The school _that stands on the hillside_ is
painted white. I know _whom you_ mean].

(_b_) Clauses introduced by a relative or interrogative adjective: [The
man _whose library is well furnished_ is rich. I see _which way I ought to
take_].

(_c_) Clauses introduced by a relative or interrogative adverb, such as
_when, whenever, since_ (referring to time), _until, before, after, where,
whence, whither, wherever, why, as, how_: [I know the house _where lie
lives_].

(_d_) Clauses introduced by a subordinate conjunction, such as _because,
since_ (= because), _though, although, if, unless, that_ (= in order
that), _as, as if, as though, then_: [I will go _since you wish it_].

_C._ Subordinate clauses may also be classified according to the nature of
the thought expressed.

(_a_) General description: [The house, _which stands on the hill_, has a
fine view].

(_b_) Place: [The house _where he was born_ is torn down].

(_c_) Time: [He works _whenever he_ can].

(_d_) Cause: [_Since you wish it_, I will go].

(_e_) Concession: [_Although he is my friend_, I can see his faults].

(_f_) Purpose: [Run, _that you may obtain the prize_].

(_g_) Result: [She was so tired _that she stumbled_].

(_h_) Condition: [_If it rains_, we shall not go].

(_i_) Comparison: [You look as _if you were tired_].

Note that the subordinate clauses in the above examples are modifying
clauses.

(_j_) Direct quotation: [She said, "_I will go_"].

(_k_) Indirect statement: [She said _that she would go_].

(_l_) Indirect question: [I knew _where his house_ was].

Note that the subordinate clauses in the above examples are substantive
clauses.


+85. The Framework of a Sentence+ has been already described as consisting
of the _subject_, the _verb_, and, if the verb be incomplete, of some
completing element, _object_ or _attribute complement_. Occasionally an
_objective complement_ must be added. Besides these elementary parts, both
subject and predicate may have modifiers.

The usual modifiers of the subject are:--

1. Adjective: [The _golden_ bowl is broken].

2. Adjective phrase: [The house _on the hill_ is beautiful].

3. Adjective clause: [The house _which stands on the hill_ is beautiful].

4. Noun or pronoun in possessive case: [_Helen's_ paint box is lost].

5. Noun in apposition: [Mr. Merrill, the _president_ of the club, will
open the debate].

6. Adverb used as an adjective: [My _sometime_ friend].

7. Infinitive used adjectively: [Work _to do_ is a blessing].

8. Participle: [The child, _lagging_ behind, lost her way].

The modifiers of the predicate are:--

1. Adverb: [The snow melted very _quickly_].

2. Noun used adverbially: [I walked a _mile_].

3. Infinitive used adverbially: [We were called together _to decide_ an
important question].

4. Adverbial phrase: [She ran _along the road_].

5. Adverbial clause: [Go _when you can_].

6. Nominative absolute: [The _speeches being over_, the audience
dispersed].

Occasionally, adverbs and phrases of adverbial character modify the entire
thought in a sentence, rather than some single word: [_To speak plainly,_
I cannot go. _Perhaps_ I may help you].



LIST OF SPECIAL WORDS


+86. Special Words.+--A list is here given of words which
appear as various parts of speech:---

+a+ (1) Adjective: _A_ book. (2) Preposition: I go a-fishing.

+about+ (1) Preposition: Walk _about_ the house. (2) Adverb: We walked
_about_ for an hour. _By, over, up_, etc., are used in the
same way.

+above+ (1) Preposition: The sun is _above_ the horizon. (2) Adverb: Go
_above_. (3) Noun: Every good gift is from _above_. (4)
Adjective: The _above_ remarks are discredited. _Below_ has
the same uses.

+after+ (1) Preposition: _After_ our sail. (2) Conjunctive adverb: He
came _after_ she went away.

+all+ (1) Pronoun: _All_ went merry as a marriage bell. (2) Noun: I
gave my _all_. (3) Adjective: _All_ hands to the rescue.
(4) Adverb: The work is _all_ right.

+as+ (1) Conjunctive pronoun: I give such _as_ I have. (2) Conjunctive
adverb: I am not so old _as_ she. (3) Adverb: What other
grief is _as_ hard to bear? (4) Conjunction: _As_ it was hot,
we did not go. (5) Preposition: I warned her _as_ a friend.
(6) Compound Conjunction: He looks _as_ if he were not well.

+before+ (1) Preposition: He stood _before_ the door. (2) Conjunctive
Adverb: I will do it _before_ I go. (3) Adverb: She has never
been here _before_.

+both+ (1) Adjective: _Both_ white and red pines are beautiful. (2)
Pronoun: _Both_ are yours. (3) Conjunction: She is _both_
good and beautiful.

+but+ (1) Conjunction: John reads _but_ Richard plays. (2) Preposition:
All _but_ him are at home. (3) Adverb: We can _but_ fail.

+either+ (1) Adjective: _Either_ dress is becoming. (2) Conjunction:
_Either_ this dress or the other is becoming. (3) Pronoun:
_Either_ is right.

+fast+ (1) Noun: A long _fast_. (2) Verb: They _fast_ often. (3) Adverb:
The rain fell _fast_. (4) Adjective: He is a _fast_ walker.

+for+ (1) Subordinate Conjunction: I must go, _for_ I promised. (2)
Cooerdinate Conjunction: She stayed at home, _for_ I saw her.
(3) Preposition: I have nothing _for_ you.

+hard+ (1) Adjective: _Hard_ labor. (2) Adverb: He works _hard_.

+like+ (1) Noun: We may never see her _like_ again. (2) Adjective: This
process gives _like_ results. (3) Adverb: _Like_ as a father
pitieth his children. (4) Preposition: She looks _like_ me.
(By some grammarians _like_ in this case is considered a
_adjective_ with the preposition _to_ omitted.) (5) Verb:
You _like_ your work.

+little+ (1) Adjective: A _little_ bread. (2) Noun: I wish a _little_.
(3) Adverb: He laughs _little_. _Much_ has the same uses.

+many a+ (1) Adjective: _Many a_ tree.

+notwithstanding+ (1) Preposition: _Notwithstanding_ the rain, we were
content. (2) Conjunction or Preposition: She is happy,
_notwithstanding_ (the fact that) she is an invalid.

+only+ (1) Adjective: This is the _only_ way. (2) Adverb: _Only_
experienced persons need apply. (3) Conjunction: I should
go, _only_ it is stormy.

+since+ (1) Preposition: _Since_ that day I have not seen her. (2)
Conjunction: _Since_ you lost it, you must replace it.
(3) Adverb: I have not seen her _since_. (4) Conjunctive
Adverb: You have been here _since_ I have.

+still+ (1) Adjective: The lake is _still_. (2) Adverb: The tree is
_still_ lying where it fell. (3) Conjunction: He is
entertaining; _still_ he talks too much. (4) Verb: Oil
is said to _still_ the waves. (5) Noun: In the _still_ of
noonday the song of the locust was loud.

+than+ (1) Conjunction: I am older _than_ she. (2) Preposition: _Than_
whom there is none wiser.

+that+ (1) Demonstrative Pronoun: _That_ is right. (2) Conjunctive
Pronoun: He _that_ lives nobly is happy. (3) Adjective:
_That_ book is mine. (4) Conjunction: I say this _that_ you
may understand my position. (5) Substantive Conjunction:
_That_ this is true is evident.

+the+ (1) Adjective (article): _The_ lake. (2) Adverb: _The_ more ...
_the_ merrier.

+then+ (1) Adverb: I shall know _then_. (2) Conjunction: If you so
decide, _then_ we may go.

+there+ (1) Adverb: The stream runs _there_. (2) Expletive: _There_ are
many points to be considered. (3) Interjection: _There!
there!_ it makes no difference!

+what+ (1) Conjunctive Interrogative Pronoun: I heard _what_ you said.
Pronoun: _What_ shall I do? (3) Interrogative Adjective:
_What_ game do you prefer? (4) Conjunctive Adjective: I
know _what_ books he enjoys. (5) Adverb: _What_ with this
and _what_ with that, he finally got his wish. (6)
Interjection: _What! what!_

+while+ (1) Noun: A long _while_. (2) Verb: To _while_ away the time.
(3) Conjunctive Adverb: I stay in _while_ it snows.



III. FIGURES OF SPEECH


+87. Figures of Speech.+--A figure of speech is a change from the usual
form of expression for the purpose of producing a greater effect. These
changes may be effective either because they are more pleasing to us or
because they are more forcible, or for both reasons.

While figurative language is a change from the usual mode of expression,
we are not to think of it as being unnatural. It is, in fact, as natural
as plain language, and nearly every one, from the illiterate to the most
learned, makes use of it, more or less, in his ordinary conversation. This
arises from, the fact that we all enjoy comparisons and substitutions.
When we say that we have been pegging away all day at our work, or that
the wind howls, or that the man has a heart of steel, we are making use of
figures of speech. Figurative language ranges from these very simple
expressions to the beautiful figures of speech found in so much of our
poetry. Written prose contains many beautiful and forcible examples, but
it is in poetry that we find most of them.


+88. Simile.+--A simile is an expressed comparison between objects
belonging to different classes. We must remember, however, that all
resemblances do not constitute similes. If we compare two trees, or two
beehives, or two rivers, our comparison is not a simile. If we compare a
tree to a person, a beehive to a schoolroom, or time to a river, we may
form a good simile, since the things compared do not belong to the same
class. The best similes are those in which the ideas compared have one
strong point of resemblance, and are unlike in all other respects.


1. How far that little candle throws its beams!
So shines a good deed in a naughty world.

--Shakespeare.


2. For very young he seemed, tenderly reared;
Like some young cypress, tall, and dark, and straight.

--Matthew Arnold.


3. In the primrose-tinted sky
The wan little moon
Hangs like a jewel dainty and rare.

--Francis C. Rankin.


+89. Metaphor.+--A metaphor differs from a simile in that the comparison
is implied rather than expressed. They are essentially the same as far as
the comparison is concerned, and usually the one kind may be easily
changed to the other. In a simile we say that one object _is like_
another, in a metaphor we say that one object _is_ another.


EXERCISES


Select the metaphors in the following and change them to
similes:--


1. In arms the Austrian phalanx stood,
A living wall, a human wood.

--James Montgomery.


2. The familiar lines
Are footpaths for the thoughts of Italy.

--Longfellow.


3. Life is a leaf of paper white,
Whereon each one of us may write
His word or two, and then comes night.

--Lowell.


+90. Personification.+--Personification is a special form of the metaphor
in which life is attributed to inanimate objects or the characteristics of
persons are attributed to objects, animals, or even to abstract ideas.


EXERCISES


Explain why the following quotations are examples of personifications:--


1. The day is done; and slowly from the scene
The stooping sun upgathers his spent shafts
And puts them back into his golden quiver.

--Longfellow.


2. Time is a cunning workman and no man can detect his joints.

--Charles Pierce Burton.


3. The sun is couched, the seafowl gone to rest,
And the wild storm hath somewhere found a nest.

--Wordsworth.


4. See the mountains kiss high heaven,
And the waves clasp one another;
No sister flower would be forgiven
If it disdained its brother.

--Shelley.


+91. Apostrophe.+--Apostrophe is like personification, but has an
additional characteristic. When we directly address inanimate objects or
the absent as if they were present, we call the figure of speech thus
formed apostrophe.

The following are examples of apostrophe:--


1. Break, break, break,
At the foot of thy crags, O Sea!

--Tennyson.


2. Backward, turn backward, O Time, in your flight,
Make me a child again just for to-night!
Mother, come back from the echoless shore,
Take me again to your heart as of yore.

--Elizabeth Akers Allen.


+92. Metonymy.+--Metonymy consists in substituting one object for another,
the two being so closely associated that the mention of one suggests the
other.

1. The pupils are reading George Eliot.
2. Each hamlet heard the call.
3. Strike for your altars and your fires.
4. Gray hairs should be respected.