Composition Rhetoric by Stratton D. Brooks

S >> Stratton D. Brooks >> Composition Rhetoric

Pages:
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | 31

+93. Synecdoche.+--Synecdoche consists in substituting a part of anything
for the whole or a whole for the part.

1. A babe, two summers old.
2. Give us this day our daily bread.
3. Ring out the thousand years of woe,
Ring in the thousand years of peace.
4. Fifty mast are on the ocean.

+94. Other Figures of Speech.+--Sometimes, especially in older rhetorics,
the following so-called figures of speech are added to the list already
given: irony, hyperbole, antithesis, climax, and interrogation. The two
former pertain rather to style, in fact, are qualities of style, while the
last two might properly be placed along with kinds of sentences or
paragraph development. Since these so-called figures are not all mentioned
elsewhere in this text, a brief explanation and example of each will be
given here.

1. _Irony_ consists in saying just the opposite of the intended meaning,
but in such a way that it emphasizes that meaning.

What has the gray-haired prisoner done?
Has murder stained his hands with gore?
Not so; his crime is a fouler one--
God made the old man poor.

--Whittier.

2. _Hyperbole_ is an exaggerated expression used to increase
the effectiveness of a statement.

He was a man of boundless knowledge.

3. _Antithesis_ consists merely of contrasted statements. This contrast
may be found in a single sentence or it may be extended through an entire
paragraph.

Look like the innocent flower,
But be the serpent under it.

--Shakespeare.

4. _Climax_ consists of an ascendant arrangement of words or ideas.

I came, I saw, I conquered.

5. When a question is asked, not for the purpose of obtaining information
but in order to make speech more effective, it is called the figure of
_interrogation_. An affirmative question denies and a negative question
affirms.

1. Am I my brother's keeper?
2. Am I not free?

IV. THE RHETORICAL FEATURES OF THE SENTENCE

+95. Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis in Sentences.+--On pages 153-155 we
have considered the principles of unity, coherence, and emphasis as
applied to the whole composition. In much the same way these principles
are applicable to the sentence. A sentence possesses unity if all that it
contains makes one complete statement, and no more; and if all minor ideas
are made subordinate to one main idea. The effect must be single. A
sentence exhibits coherence when the relation of all of its parts is
perfectly clear. We secure emphasis in the sentence by placing ideas that
deserve distinction in conspicuous positions; by arranging the members of
a series in the order of climax; by using specific rather than general
terms; by expressing thoughts with directness and simplicity; and by
employing the devices of balance and contrast.

We must remember that, in the sentence as well as in the whole composition
and the paragraph, if coherence and unity are secured, emphasis is quite
likely to follow naturally. On the other hand, a violation of coherence or
unity often results in a lack of emphasis.

+96. Unity in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+--

1. _The presence of more than one main thought_. (Stonewall Jackson was a
general in the Confederate Army, and he is said to have been a very
religious man.) In this sentence two distinct thoughts are embodied, and
in such a way that their relation to each other is altogether illogical.
The effect is not that of a single thought. To possess unity the two or
more thoughts of a compound sentence should sustain some particular
relation, like cause and effect, contrast, series, details of a picture.
We can unite the two thoughts in a perfectly logical sentence, thus:
(Stonewall Jackson, the Confederate general, is said to have been a very
religious man.)

2. _The addition of too many dependent clauses_. (The boy was startled
when he awoke, for he heard the plan of his captors, who were preparing to
seize the boat, which had been left by his friends who had so mysteriously
deserted him at a time when he needed them most.) Here, the numerous
dependent clauses tacked on obscure the main thought. The sentence should
be broken up and, where possible, clauses should be reduced to phrases and
words. (The boy was startled when he awoke, for he heard the plan of his
captors. They were preparing to seize the boat left by his friends, who
had deserted him in the hour of greatest need.)

3. _The presence of incongruous ideas_. (With his hair combed and his
shoes blacked, he gave the impression of being a very strong man.) The
ideas of this sentence have no logical relation to each other. There is
little likelihood, too, of making them more congruous by any change in the
sentence. Blacking one's shoes and combing one's hair do not make one look
strong. The remedy for such a sentence is to separate the incongruous
ideas.

4. _A needless change of construction_. (Silas was kindly received by the
men in the tavern; and when they had listened to his story and his answers
to their questions had been noted, they began to think of catching the
thief.) Confusion arises from such sudden and needless changes of the
subject. By keeping the same subject throughout, we secure unity of
impression. (The men in the tavern received Silas kindly; and when they
had listened to his story and had noted his answers to their questions,
they began to think of catching the thief.)

5. _Making the sentence too short and fragmentary to serve as a logical
unit of the paragraph_. (I went to the park yesterday. It was a pleasant
day. I saw many animals. I had a good time, etc.) Each of these sentences,
when considered in its relation to the others, and to the development of
the thought, is altogether too incomplete and unimportant in ideas
expressed to stand alone. Unity of impression and dignity of thought are
gained by combining the sentences. (Yesterday was a pleasant day; so I
went to the park, where I saw many animals, and had a good time.)

+97. Coherence in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+--

1. _The wrong placing of modifiers_. (The victorious general was
returning to his native city after many hard-fought campaigns with his
staff officers.) It is not likely that the campaigns here referred
to were waged against the staff officers. By changing the position of
phrases we express the thought that the writer had in mind. (After many
hard-fought campaigns, the victorious general, with his staff officers,
was approaching his native city.) Especial care should be taken in placing
the correlatives _either, or; neither, nor; not only, but also;_ and the
word _only_. Incoherence frequently arises through the wrong placing of
these words.

2. _The careless use of pronouns_. (Argument plays a very little part in
that work, and those that do occur are not interesting.) (He repeated to
his father what he had told him the night before when he was in his room.)
In both sentences, the relation between pronouns and antecedents is not
clear, and incoherence results. With the ambiguity in the use of the
pronouns remedied, the sentences are entirely coherent. (Argument plays a
very little part in that work, and whatever argumentative material is
found is not interesting.) (He repeated to his father what he had told
this parent the night before in his room.)

3. _Careless participial and infinitive relations_. (After carefully
preparing my lessons, a friend came in.) (Standing on Brooklyn Bridge, a
great many ferryboats can be seen.) The relation of the parts is
manifestly illogical and absurd. The sentences should read: (After I had
carefully prepared my lessons, a friend came in.) (While standing on
Brooklyn Bridge, one can see a great many ferryboats.)

4. _The use of wrong connectives_. (It rained yesterday, and I went to
school.) We assume that the pupil wishes to convey the thought that he
went to school yesterday in spite of the rain. But by his use of the
coordinating conjunction, "and," he has failed to establish a logical
relation between the two clauses. In this case unity is violated as well
as coherence. Use different connectives and note the result, (Although it
rained yesterday, I went to school) or, (It rained yesterday, but I went
to school).

5. _Failure to observe parallelism in form_. (The stranger seemed
courteous in his conduct and to have a solicitude for my welfare.)
Although this sentence is grammatically correct, the shift in structure
from the adjective and its phrase to the infinitive phrase leads to
confusion in thought. How much clearer and smoother this rendering: (The
stranger seemed courteous in his conduct and solicitous for my welfare.)

+98. Emphasis in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+--

1. _Weak beginnings and endings_. (A fire in the city is an exciting event
to the average boy.) (It seemed that the unprincipled fellow had forged
his father's name.) In the first sentence, the important words are
"exciting event," and they should occupy the most conspicuous position,--
at the end of the sentence. The effectiveness is much improved by this
order: (To the average boy, a fire in the city is an exciting event.) In
the second sentence the weak place is the beginning. The subject and its
modifiers are striking enough to demand their rightful position,--as the
introductory words; in "forged his father's name" we have ideas startling
enough for a place at the end of the sentence. "It seemed that" can be
reduced to one word, "apparently," and this can be made parenthetical.
(The unprincipled fellow, apparently, had forged his father's name.) This
sentence, it will be observed, illustrates the periodic or suspended
structure, a type particularly effective to employ for sustaining interest
as well as for securing emphasis.

2. _Failure to observe the order of climax_. (Dazed, broken-hearted,
hungry, the poor mother resumed her daily tasks.) Clearly, the strongest
idea is suggested by "broken-hearted." A better order would be: (Hungry,
dazed, broken-hearted, the poor mother resumed her daily tasks.)

3. _The use of superfluous words_. (I rushed hurriedly into the burning
house and hastily snatched my few possessions.) In this sentence, "rushed"
and "snatched" lose rather than gain force by adding "hurriedly" and
"hastily." Look up definitions of "rush" and "snatch." When we wish to
express strong emotion or to describe action resulting from excitement, we
only weaken the impression by using unnecessary words. Simple, direct
sentences are most forceful. In aiming to secure sentence emphasis, then,
we should avoid circumlocution, redundancy, tautology, and verbosity.
(Look up these terms in the Century Dictionary.)

4. _The use of general rather than specific terms_. (He approached the
brook cautiously, and concealing himself in the bushes, began fishing.) A
consideration of the choice of words in the sentence belongs strictly to
the study of diction; however, force in the sentence is dependent in a
large measure on the words employed. Observe how forceful the following
sentence is as contrasted with the first example: (He crept noiselessly to
the fishing hole, and hiding in the willows, threw his hook into the
stream.)

5. _Failure to employ balance and contrast_. (Worth makes the man; but the
fellow is made by the want of it.) (His life was spent in repenting of
past misdeeds; in doing what was wrong, while he inculcated principles of
righteousness.) Compare these with: (Worth makes the man; the want of it,
the fellow.) (His life was spent in sinning and repenting; in inculcating
what was right, and doing what was wrong.) Here the regularity of form
gives pleasure to the taste, while the position of balanced and parallel
parts adds clearness, coherence, and emphasis to the thoughts expressed.
This method of sentence structure, if employed too frequently, however,
will lead to a mannerism difficult to overcome. The caution to be heeded
in the case of this type of sentence as well as in the case of every other
is, "Nothing too much." Observe the law of variety.

EXERCISES

Point out the specific faults and correct:--

1. He neither gave satisfaction as butler nor as coachman.

2. Elaine deserves our sympathy from the beginning to the end of the
novel.

3. John only played once and won; and then, after watching the other
players for a time, he got up and left the room.

4. The boy had an unconquerable fear of reptiles which no reasoning could
overcome.

5 The Vicar's son Moses was a good student of the classics, but he made a
bad bargain in his purchase of the green spectacles.

6. In all of his behavior toward Lynette, Gareth was patient and
courteous, which reflected much credit on his knightly character.

7. Johnson was a man with a heroic soul, a wonderful intellect, and a kind
heart.

8. After they had all assembled and come together, Odysseus addressed
them.

9. He had reached the age of seventy, and his death was due to a nervous
disorder.

10. The boys were only injured a little.

11. George Eliot's writings are filled with the philosophy of life, if we
are wise enough to discover it.

12. Addison was sincere and kindly in his attitude toward men, and Pope
was hypocritical and spiteful.

13. With reputation, character, and wealth gone, the poor man had little
to live for.

14. Lancelot loved Queen Guinevere dearly, and he was Arthur's most
valorous knight.

15. We are at peace with all the world and the rest of mankind.

16. Cedric lived with two great ends in view,--the union of Athelstane and
Rowena and to see a restored Saxon monarchy.

17. James was walking backward and forward on the mountain side, which at
this place was very precipitous and from which a little silvery stream
issued to begin its rapid descent to the quiet hamlet that lay far below.

18. In our efforts to succeed in life we work hard that we may make names
for ourselves and to acquire property.

19. He is a good hunter, but his wife is a Methodist.

20. Going up the street I saw the strangest-looking man.

21. James speaks German fluently, and he did not begin to study it until
last year.

22. On returning to the deck, the sea assumed a very different aspect.

V. LIST OF SYNONYMS

Abandon, cast off, desert, forswear, quit, renounce, withdraw from.

Abate, decrease, diminish, mitigate, moderate.

Abhor, abominate, detest, dislike, loathe.

Abiding, enduring, lasting, permanent, perpetual.

Ability, capability, capacity, competency, efficacy, power.

Abolish, annul, eradicate, exterminate, obliterate, root out, wipe out.

Abomination, curse, evil, iniquity, nuisance, shame.

Absent, absent-minded, absorbed, abstracted, oblivious, preoccupied.

Absolve, acquit, clear.

Abstemiousness, abstinence, frugality, moderation, sobriety, temperance.

Absurd, ill-advised, ill-considered, ludicrous, monstrous, paradoxical,
preposterous, unreasonable, wild.

Abundant, adequate, ample, enough, generous, lavish, plentiful.

Accomplice, ally, colleague, helper, partner.

Active, agile, alert, brisk, bustling, energetic, lively, supple.

Actual, authentic, genuine, real.

Address, adroitness, courtesy, readiness, tact.

Adept, adroit, deft, dexterous, handy, skillful.

Adequate, adjoining, bordering, near, neighboring.

Admire, adore, respect, revere, venerate.

Admit, allow, concede, grant, suffer, tolerate.

Admixture, alloy.

Adverse, disinclined, indisposed, loath, reluctant, slow, unwilling.

Aerial, airy, animated, ethereal, frolicsome.

Affectation, cant, hypocrisy, pretense, sham.

Affirm, assert, avow, declare, maintain, state.

Aged, ancient, antiquated, antique, immemorial, old, venerable.

Air, bearing, carriage, demeanor.

Akin, alike, identical.

Alert, on the alert, sleepless, wary, watchful.

Allay, appease, calm, pacify.

Alliance, coalition, compact, federation, union, fusion.

Allude, hint, imply, insinuate, intimate, suggest.

Allure, attract, cajole, coax, inveigle, lure.

Amateur, connoisseur, novice, tyro.

Amend, better, mend, reform, repair.

Amplify, develop, expand, extend, unfold, widen.

Amusement, diversion, entertainment, pastime.

Anger, exasperation, petulance, rage, resentment.

Animal, beast, brute, living creature, living organism.

Answer, rejoinder, repartee, reply, response, retort.

Anticipate, forestall, preclude, prevent.

Apiece, individually, severally, separately.

Apparent, clear, evident, obvious, tangible, unmistakable.

Apprehend, comprehend, conceive, perceive, understand.

Arraign, charge, cite, impeach, indict, prosecute, summon.

Arrogance, haughtiness, presumption, pride, self-complacency,
superciliousness, vanity.

Artist, artificer, artisan, mechanic, operative, workman.

Artless, boorish, clownish, hoidenish, rude, uncouth, unsophisticated.

Assent, agree, comply.

Assurance, effrontery, hardihood, impertinence, impudence, incivility,
insolence, officiousness, rudeness.

Atom, grain, scrap, particle, shred, whit.

Atrociousness, barbaric, barbarous, brutal, merciless.

Attack, assault, infringement, intrusion, onslaught.

Attain, accomplish, achieve, arrive at, compass, reach, secure.

Attempt, endeavor, essay, strive, try, undertake.

Attitude, pose, position, posture.

Attribute, ascribe, assign, charge, impute.

Axiom, truism.

Baffle, balk, bar, check, embarrass, foil, frustrate, hamper, hinder,
impede, retard, thwart.

Banter, burlesque, drollery, humor, jest, raillery, wit, witticism.

Beg, plead, press, urge.

Beguile, divert, enliven, entertain, occupy.

Bewilderment, confusion, distraction, embarrassment, perplexity.

Bind, fetter, oblige, restrain, restrict.

Blaze, flame, flare, flash, flicker, glare, gleam, gleaming, glimmer,
glitter, light, luster, shimmer, sparkle.

Blessed, hallowed, holy, sacred, saintly.

Boasting, display, ostentation, pomp, pompousness, show.

Brave, adventurous, bold, courageous, daring, dauntless, fearless,
gallant, heroic, undismayed.

Bravery, coolness, courage, gallantry, heroism.

Brief, concise, pithy, sententious, terse.

Bring over, convince, induce, influence, persuade, prevail upon, win over.

Calamity, disaster, misadventure, mischance, misfortune, mishap.

Candid, impartial, open, straightforward, transparent, unbiased,
unprejudiced, unreserved.

Candor, frankness, truth, veracity.

Caprice, humor, vagary, whim.

Caricature, burlesque, parody, travesty.

Catch, capture, clasp, clutch, grip, secure.

Cause, consideration, design, end, ground, motive, object, reason,
purpose.

Caution, discretion, prudence.

Censure, criticism, rebuke, reproof, reprimand, reproach.

Character, constitution, disposition, reputation, temper, temperament.

Characteristic, peculiarity, property, singularity, trait.

Chattering, garrulous, loquacious, talkative.

Cheer, comfort, delight, ecstasy, gayety, gladness, gratification,
happiness, jollity, satisfaction.

Churlish, crusty, gloomy, gruff, ill-natured, morose, sour, sullen, surly.

Class, circle, clique, coterie.

Cloak, cover, gloss over, mitigate, palliate, screen.

Cloy, sate, satiate, satisfy, surfeit.

Commit, confide, consign, intrust, relegate.

Compassion, forbearance, lenience, mercy.

Compassionate, gracious, humane.

Complete, consummate, faultless, flawless, perfect.

Confirm, corroborate.

Conflicting, discordant, discrepant, incongruous, mismated.

Confused, discordant, miscellaneous, various.

Conjecture, guess, suppose, surmise.

Conscious, aware, certain.

Consequence, issue, outcome, outgrowth, result, sequel, upshot.

Continual, continuous, incessant, unbroken, uninterrupted.

Credible, conceivable, likely, presumable, probable, reasonable.

Customary, habitual, normal, prevailing, usual, wonted.

Damage, detriment, disadvantage, harm, hurt, injury, prejudice.

Dangerous, formidable, terrible.

Defame, deprecate, disparage, slander, vilify.

Defile, infect, soil, stain, sully, taint, tarnish.

Deleterious, detrimental, hurtful, harmful, mischievous, pernicious,
ruinous.

Delicate, fine, minute, refined, slender.

Delightful, grateful, gratifying, refreshing, satisfying.

Difficult, hard, laborious, toilsome, trying.

Digress, diverge, stray, swerve, wander.

Disown, disclaim, disavow, recall, renounce, repudiate, retract.

Dispose, draw, incline, induce, influence, move, prompt, stir.

Earlier, foregoing, previous, preliminary.

Effeminate, feminine, womanish, womanly.

Emergency, extremity, necessity.

Empty, fruitless, futile, idle, trifling, unavailing, useless, vain,
visionary.

Erudition, knowledge, profundity, sagacity, sense, wisdom.

Eternal, imperishable, interminable, perennial, perpetual, unfailing.

Excuse, pretense, pretext, subterfuge.

Exemption, immunity, liberty, license, privilege.

Explicit, express.

Faint, faint-hearted, faltering, half-hearted, irresolute, languid,
listless, purposeless.

Faithful, loyal, stanch, trustworthy, trusty.

Fanciful, fantastic, grotesque, imaginative, visionary.

Fling, gibe, jeer, mock, scoff, sneer, taunt.

Flock, bevy, brood, covey, drove, herd, litter, pack.

Fluctuate, hesitate, oscillate, vacillate, waver.

Folly, imbecility, senselessness, stupidity.

Grief, melancholy, regret, sadness, sorrow.

Hale, healthful, healthy, salutary, sound, vigorous.

Ignorant, illiterate, uninformed, uninstructed, unlettered, untaught.

Impulsive, involuntary, spontaneous, unbidden, voluntary, willing.

Indispensable, inevitable, necessary, requisite, unavoidable.

Inquisitive, inquiring, intrusive, meddlesome, peeping, prying.

Intractable, perverse, petulant, ungovernable, wayward, willful.

Irritation, offense, pique, resentment.

Probably, presumably.

Reliable, trustworthy, trusty.

Remnant, trace, token, vestige.

Requite, repay, retaliate, satisfy.

VI. LIST OF WORDS FOR EXERCISES IN WORD USAGE

Ability, capacity.

Accept, except.

Acceptance, acceptation.

Access, accession.

Accredit, credit.

Act, action.

Admire, like.

Admittance, admission.

Advance, advancement, progress, progression.

Affect, effect.

After, afterward.

Aggravating, irritating, provoking, exasperating.

Allege, maintain

Allow, guess, think.

Allusion, illusion, delusion.

Almost, most, mostly.

Alone, only.

Alternate, choice.

Among, between.

Amount, number, quantity.

Angry, mad.

Apparently, evidently.

Apt, likely, liable.

Arise, rise.

At, in.

Avocation, vocation.

Awfully, very.

Balance, rest, remainder.

Begin, commence.

Beside, besides.

Both, each, every.

Bring, fetch.

By, with.

Calculate, intend.

Carry, bring, fetch.

Casuality, casualty.

Character, reputation.

Claim, assert.

Clever, pleasant.

College, university, school.

Completeness, completion.

Compliment, complement.

Confess, admit.

Construe, construct.

Contemptible, contemptuous.

Continual, continuous.

Convince, convict.

Council, counsel.

Couple, pair.

Credible, creditable, credulous.

Custom, habit.

Deadly, deathly.

Decided, decisive.

Decimate, destroy.

Declare, assert.

Degrade, demean.

Depot, station, R.R.

Discover, invent.

Drive, ride.

Each other, any other, one another.

Emigration, immigration, migration.

Enormity, enormousness.

Estimate, esteem.

Exceptional, exceptionable.

Expect, suppose.

Falseness, falsity.

Fly, flee.

Funny, odd.

Grant, give.

Habit, practice.

Haply, happily.

Healthy, healthful, wholesome.

Human, humane.

Lady, woman.

Last, latest, preceding.

Learn, teach.

Lease, hire.

Less, fewer.

Lie, lay.

Loan, lend.

Love, like.

Mad, angry.

Majority, plurality.

Manly, mannish.

May, can.

Mutual, common.

Necessities, necessaries.

Nice, pleasant, attractive.

Noted, notorious.

Observation, observance.

Official, officious.

Oral, verbal.

Part, portion.

Partly, partially.

Persecute, prosecute.

Person, party.

Practicable, practical.

Prescribe, proscribe.

Prominent, predominant.

Purpose, propose.

Quite, very, rather.

Relation, relative.

Repair, mend.

Requirement, requisite.

Rise, raise.

Scholar, pupil, student.

Sensible of, sensitive to.

Series, succession.

Settle, locate.

Sewage, sewerage.

Shall, will.

Should, would.

Sit, set.

Splendid, elegant.

Statement, assertion.

Statue, statute, stature.

Stay, stop.

Team, carriages.

Transpire, happen.

Verdict, testimony.

Without, unless.

Womanly, womanish.

INDEX

Abbott.
Action: observation of.
Actuality: in argument.
Adams.
Adjectives.
Advantages:
of expressing ideas gained from experience;
of imaginative theme writing.
Adverbs.
Agreement.
Allen, Elizabeth A.
Allen, James Lane.
Ambiguity.
Analogy: argument from.
Antithesis.
Apostrophe:
rule for;
as figure of speech.
Argument:
purpose of;
use of explanation in;
by stating advantages and disadvantages;
by use of specific instances;
refutation or indirect;
differs from exposition;
clear thinking essential;
by inference;
from cause;
from sign;
from example;
from analogy;
differs from persuasion;
with persuasion.
Argumentative themes.
Arnold.
Arrangement:
_see_ coherence;
in argument;
summary of.
Attendant circumstances: argument from.
Authority: appeals to in argument.
Auxiliary verbs.
Ayton.

Pages:
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | 31