History of Rome, Vol III by Titus Livius

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8. Amid concerns of greater importance, an old dispute was revived at
the election of a chief curio, when a priest was appointed to succeed
Marcus Aemilius; the patricians denying that Caius Mamilius Vitulus,
who was a plebeian candidate, ought to be allowed to stand, because no
one before his time had held that priesthood who was not a patrician.
The tribunes, on being appealed to, referred the matter to the senate.
The senate left it to the decision of the people. Thus Caius Mamilius
Vitulus was the first plebeian created chief curio. Publius Licinius,
chief pontiff, compelled Caius Valerius Flaccus to be inaugurated
flamen of Jupiter, against his will. Caius Valerius Laetorius was
created decemvir for the performance of sacred rites, in the room of
Quintus Mucius Scaevola, deceased. I should willingly have passed over
in silence the reason of a flamen's being compelled to be inaugurated,
had he not become a good, from having been a bad character. In
consequence of having spent his youth in idleness and debauchery,
vices for which he had incurred the displeasure of his own brother,
Lucius Flaccus, and the rest of his kinsmen, Caius Flaccus was chosen
flamen by Publius Licinius, chief pontiff. As soon as his mind became
occupied with the care of the sacred rites and ceremonies, he soon so
completely divested himself of his former habits, that no one among
all the youth was more esteemed, or enjoyed in a greater degree the
approbation of the chief of the patricians, whether relations or
aliens. Being raised by this generally good character to a proper
confidence in himself, he claimed to be admitted into the senate; a
thing intermitted for many years, on account of the worthlessness of
former flamens. On entering the senate, Lucius Licinius, the praetor,
led him out; on which the flamen appealed to the tribunes of the
people. He demanded back the ancient privilege of his priesthood,
which was given, together with the purple-bordered robe, and the
curule chair, to the office of flamen. The praetor wished the question
to rest not on the precedents contained in the annals, which were
obsolete from their antiquity, but on the usual practice in all the
cases of most recent date; urging, that no flamen of Jupiter, in
the memory of their fathers or their grandfathers, had taken up that
privilege. The tribunes giving it as their opinion, that justice
required, that as the obliteration of the privilege was occasioned by
the negligence of the flamens, the consequences ought to fall upon the
flamens themselves, and not upon the office, led the flamen into the
senate, with the general approbation of the fathers, and without any
opposition, even from the praetor himself; while all were of opinion
that the flamen had obtained his object more from the purity of his
life, than any right appertaining to the priesthood. The consuls,
before they departed to their provinces, raised two legions for the
city, and as many soldiers as were necessary to make up the numbers
of the other armies. The consul Fulvius appointed his brother, Caius
Fulvius Flaccus, lieutenant-general, to march the old city army into
Etruria, and to bring to Rome the legions which were in Etruria. And
the consul Fabius ordered his son, Quintus Fabius Maximus, to lead the
remains of the army of Fulvius, which had been collected, amounting
to three thousand three hundred and thirty-six, into Sicily to Marcus
Valerius, the proconsul, and to receive from him two legions and
thirty quinqueremes. The withdrawing of these legions from the island
did not at all diminish the force employed for the protection of that
province, either in effect or appearance; for though, in addition to
two veteran legions which were most effectively reinforced, he had
a great number of Numidian deserters, both horse and foot, he raised
also a body of Sicilian troops, consisting of men who had served in
the armies of Epicydes and the Carthaginians, and were experienced
in war. Having added these foreign auxiliaries to each of the Roman
legions, he preserved the appearance of two armies. With one he
ordered Lucius Cinctius to protect that portion of the island which
had formed the kingdom of Hiero, with the other he himself guarded the
rest of the island, which was formerly divided by the boundary of the
Roman and Carthaginian dominions. He divided also the fleet of seventy
ships, in order that it might protect the sea-coast, through the
entire extent of its shores. He himself went through the island with
the cavalry of Mutines to inspect the lands, observe those which were
cultivated and those which were not, and, accordingly, either praise
or reprove the owners. By this diligence so large a quantity of corn
was produced, that he both sent some to Rome, and collected at Catana
corn which might serve as a supply for the army, which was about to
pass the summer at Tarentum.

9. But the transportation of the soldiers into Sicily, and they
consisted chiefly of Latins and allies, had very nearly caused a
serious commotion; from such trifling circumstances do events of great
importance frequently arise. A murmuring arose among the Latins and
allies at their meetings. They said, that "they had been drained by
levies and contributions for ten years. That almost every year they
fought with the most disastrous consequences. That some of them
were slain in the field, others were carried off by disease. That a
countryman of theirs who was enlisted by the Romans was more lost to
them than one who was taken prisoner by the Carthaginians; for the
latter was sent back to his country by the enemy without ransom, while
the former was sent beyond the limits of Italy, into exile rather than
military service. That the troops which fought at Cannae were growing
old there, for eight years, and would die there before the enemy,
who was now more than ever flourishing and vigorous would depart from
Italy. If the old soldiers did not return to their country, and fresh
ones were enlisted, that in a short time there would be no one left.
That, therefore, they must refuse to the Roman people, before they
came to utter desolation and want, what shortly their very condition
would refuse. If the Romans saw their allies unanimous on this
point that they would then certainly think of making peace with the
Carthaginians; otherwise, Italy would never be without war while
Hannibal was alive." Thus they discoursed in their meetings. The Roman
people had at that time thirty colonies. Twelve of these, for they all
had embassies in Rome, told the consuls that they had not whence to
furnish either men or money. The twelve were Ardea, Nepete Sutrium,
Alba, Carseoli, Cora, Suessa, Cerceii, Setia, Cales Narnia, Interamna.
The consuls, astonished at this new proceeding, were desirous to deter
them from so hateful a measure and, considering that they could effect
this better by censure and remonstrance than by mild means, said that
"they had dared to say to the consuls what the consuls could not bring
their minds to declare in the senate; for that this was not refusal to
perform military service, but an open defection from the Roman people.
They desired, therefore, that they would return to their colonies
speedily, and that, considering the subject as untouched, as they had
only spoken of, but not attempted, so impious a business, they would
consult with their countrymen. That they would warn them that they
were not Campanians or Tarentines, but Romans; that from thence they
derived their origin, and thence were sent out into colonies and lands
captured from the enemy, for the purpose of increasing the population.
That they owed to the Romans what children owed to parents, if they
possessed any natural affection, or any gratitude towards their mother
country. That they should, therefore, consider the matter afresh; for
that certainly what they then so rashly meditated, was the betraying
the Roman empire, and putting the victory in the hands of Hannibal."
The consuls having spent a long time in exchanging arguments of this
kind, the ambassadors, who were not at all moved by what they said,
declared, that "they had nothing which they could carry home, nor
had their senate any thing fresh to devise, having neither men to be
enlisted, nor money to be furnished for pay." The consuls, seeing that
they were inflexible, laid the matter before the senate; where the
alarm excited in the minds of all was so great, that "the greater
part declared it was all over with the empire; that the rest of the
colonies would take the same course, and that all the allies had
conspired to betray the city of Rome to Hannibal."

10. The consuls endeavoured to encourage and console the senate,
telling them that "the other colonies would maintain their allegiance,
and continue in their former state of dutiful obedience, and that
those very colonies who had renounced their allegiance, would be
inspired with respect for the empire, if ambassadors were sent round
to them to reprove and not entreat them." The senate having given them
permission to do and to act as they might conceive best for the state;
after sounding the intentions of the other colonies, the consuls
summoned their ambassadors, and asked them whether they had their
soldiers ready according to the roll? Marcus Sextilius of Fregellae
replied, in behalf of the eighteen colonies, that "they both had their
soldiers ready according to the roll, and if more were wanting would
furnish more, and would perform with all diligence whatever else the
Roman people commanded and wished; that to do this they wanted not
means, and of inclination they had more than enough." The consuls,
having first told them that any praises bestowed by themselves alone
seemed too little for their deserts, unless the whole body of the
fathers should thank them in the senate-house, led them before the
senate. The senate, having voted an address to them conceived in the
most honourable terms, charged the consuls to take them before the
assembly of the people; and, among the many other distinguished
services rendered to themselves and their ancestors, to make mention
also of this recent obligation conferred upon the state. Nor even at
the present day, after the lapse of so many ages let their names be
passed over in silence, nor let them be defrauded of the praise due
to them. They were the people of Signia, Norba, Saticulum, Brundusium,
Fregellae, Lucerium Venusia, Adria, Firma, Ariminum; on the other
sea, Pontius Paestum, and Cosa; and in the inland parts Beneventum,
Aesernia, Spoletum, Placentia, and Cremona. By the support of these
colonies the empire of the Roman people then stood; and the thanks
both of the senate and the people were given to them. As to the twelve
other colonies which refused obedience, the fathers forbade that their
names should be mentioned, that their ambassadors should either be
dismissed or retained, to be addressed by the consuls. Such a tacit
reproof appears most consistent with the dignity of the Roman people.
While the consuls were getting in readiness all the other things which
were necessary for the war, it was resolved that the vicesimary gold,
which was preserved in the most sacred part of the treasury as a
resource in cases of extreme exigencies should be drawn out. There
were drawn out as many as four thousand pounds of gold, from which
five hundred pounds each were given to the consuls, to Marcus
Marcellus and Publius Sulpicius, proconsuls, and Lucius Veturius,
the praetor, who had by lot obtained Gaul as his province; and in
addition, one hundred pounds of gold were given to the consul Fabius,
as an extraordinary grant to be carried into the citadel of Tarentum.
The rest they employed in contracts, for ready money, for clothing
for the army which was carrying on the war in Spain, to their own and
their general glory.

11. It was resolved also, that the prodigies should be expiated before
the consuls set out from the city. In the Alban mount, the statue of
Jupiter and a tree near the temple were struck by lightning; at Ostia,
a grove; at Capua, a wall and the temple of Fortune; at Sinuessa, a
wall and a gate. Some also asserted, that water at Alba had flowed
tinged with blood. That at Rome, within the cell of Fors Fortuna, an
image, which was in the crown of the goddess, had fallen spontaneously
from her head into her hands. At Privernum, it was satisfactorily
established that an ox spoke, and that a vulture flew down into
a shop, while the forum was crowded. And that a child was born at
Sinuessa, of ambiguous sex, between a male and female, such as are
commonly called Androgynes, a term derived from the Greek language,
which is better adapted, as for most other purposes, so for the
composition of words; also that it rained milk, and that a boy was
born with the head of an elephant. These prodigies were then expiated
with victims of the larger kind, and a supplication at every shrine
and an offering up of prayers, was proclaimed for one day. It was also
decreed, that Caius Hostilius, the praetor, should vow and perform
the games in honour of Apollo as they had of late years been vowed and
performed. During the same time, Quintus Fulvius, the consul, held an
election for the creation of censors. Marcus Cornelius Cethegus, and
Publius Sempronius Tuditanus, both of whom had not yet been consuls,
were created censors. The question was put to the people on the
authority of the fathers, and the people ordered that these censors
should let to farm the Campanian lands. The choosing of the senate
was delayed by a dispute which arose between the censors about the
selection of a chief of the senate. The choice belonged to Sempronius;
but Cornelius contended that the custom handed down by their fathers
must be followed, which was, that they should choose him as chief of
the senate who was first censor of those who were then alive; this was
Titus Manlius Torquatus. Sempronius rejoined, that to whom the gods
had given the lot of choosing, to him the same gods had given the
right of exercising his discretion freely. That he would act in this
affair according to his own free will, and would choose Quintus Fabius
Maximus, whom he would prove to be the first man in the Roman state,
even in the judgment of Hannibal. After a long verbal dispute, his
colleague giving up the point, Quintus Fabius Maximus, the consul, was
chosen, by Sempronius, chief of the senate. Another senate was then
chosen, and eight names were passed over; among which was that
of Lucius Caecilius Metellus, disrespected as the adviser of the
abandonment of Italy, after the defeat at Cannae. In censuring those
of the equestrian order, the same ground was acted upon, but there
were very few to whom that disgrace belonged. All of the equestrian
order belonging to the legions who had fought at Cannae, and were then
in Sicily, were deprived of their horses. To this severe punishment
they added another relating to time, which was, that the past campaign
which they had served on horses furnished at the public expense should
not be reckoned to them, but that they should serve ten campaigns on
horses furnished at their own expense. They also searched for, and
discovered, a great number of those who ought to have served in the
cavalry; and all those who were seventeen years old at the beginning
of the war and had not served, they disfranchised. They then
contracted for the restoration of the seven shops, the shamble and the
royal palace, situated round the forum, and which had been consumed by
fire.

12. Having finished every thing which was to be done in Rome, the
consuls set out for the war. Fulvius first went advance to Capua; in
a few days Fabius followed. He implored his colleague in person,
and Marcellus by a letter use the most vigorous measures to detain
Hannibal, while he was making an attack upon Tarentum. That when that
city was taken from the enemy, who had been repulsed on all sides and
had no place where he might make a stand or look back up as a safe
retreat, he would not then have even a pretext for remaining in Italy.
He also sent a messenger to Rhegium, the praefect of the garrison,
which had been placed there the consul Laevinus, against the
Bruttians, and consisted eight thousand men, the greater part of
whom had been brought from Agathyrna in Sicily, as has been before
mentioned, and were men who had been accustomed to live by rapine. To
these were added fugitives of the Bruttians natives of that country,
equal to them in daring, and under an equal necessity of braving
every thing. This band ordered to be marched, first, to lay waste the
Bruttian territory, and then to attack the city Caulonia. After having
executed the order, not only with alacrity, but avidity, and having
pillaged and put to flight the cultivators of the land they attacked
the city with the utmost vigour. Marcellus incited by the letter of
the consul, and because he had made up his mind that no Roman general
was so good a match for Hannibal as himself, set out from his winter
quarters as soon as there was plenty of forage in the fields, and met
Hannibal at Canusium. The Carthaginian was then endeavouring to induce
the Canusians to revolt, but as soon as he heard that Marcellus was
approaching, he decamped thence. The country was open, without any
covers adapted for an ambuscade; he therefore began to retire thence
into woody districts. Marcellus closely pursued him, pitched his camp
close to his, and when he had completed his works, led out his troops
into the field. Hannibal engaged in slight skirmishes, and sent
out single troops of horse and the spearmen from his infantry, not
considering it necessary to hazard a general battle. He was, however,
drawn on to a contest of that kind which he was avoiding. Hannibal had
decamped by night, but was overtaken by Marcellus in a plain and open
country. Then, while encamping, Marcellus, by attacking the workmen
on all hands, prevented the completion of his works. Thus a pitched
battle ensued, and all their forces were brought into action; but
night coming on, they retired from an equal contest. They then hastily
fortified their camps, which were a small space apart, before night.
The next day, as soon as it was light, Marcellus led out his troops
into the field; nor did Hannibal decline the challenge, but exhorted
his soldiers at great length, desiring them "to remember Trasimenus
and Cannae, and thus quell the proud spirit of their enemies." He
said, "the enemy pressed upon him, and trod upon their heels; that he
did not allow them to pass unmolested, pitch their camp, or even take
breath and look around them; that every day, the rising sun and the
Roman troops in battle-array were to be seen together on the plains.
But if in one battle he should retire from the field, not without loss
of blood, he would then prosecute the war more steadily and quietly."
Fired by these exhortations, and at the same time wearied with the
presumption of the enemy, who daily pressed upon them and provoked
them to an engagement, they commenced the battle with spirit. The
battle continued for more than two hours, when the right wing of
the allies and the chosen band began to give way on the part of the
Romans; which Marcellus perceiving, led the eighteenth legion to the
front. While some were retiring in confusion, and others were
coming up reluctantly, the whole line was thrown into disorder, and
afterwards completely routed; while their fears getting the better of
their sense of shame, they turned their backs. In the battle and in
the flight there fell as many as two thousand seven hundred of the
citizens and allies; among which were four Roman centurions and two
military tribunes, Marcus Licinius and Marcus Helvius. Four military
standards were lost by the wing which first fled, and two belonging to
the legion which came up in place of the retiring allies.

13. Marcellus, on his return to the camp, delivered an address to
his soldiers so severe and acrimonious, that the words of their
exasperated general were more painful to them than what they had
suffered in the unsuccessful battle during the whole day. "I praise
and thank the immortal gods," said he "that in such an affair the
victorious enemy did not assail our very camp, when you were hurrying
into the rampart and the gates with such consternation. There can be
no doubt but you would have abandoned the camp with the same cowardice
with which you gave up the battle. What panic was this? What terror?
What sudden forgetfulness of who you are, and who the persons with
whom you were fighting, took possession of your minds? Surely these
are the same enemies in conquering and pursuing whom when conquered
you spent the preceding summer; whom latterly you have been closely
pursuing while they fled before you night and day; whom you have
wearied by partial battles; whom yesterday you would not allow either
to march or encamp. I pass over those things in which you might be
allowed to glory; I will mention a circumstance which of itself ought
to fill you with shame and remorse. Yesterday you separated from the
enemy on equal terms. What alteration has last night, what on this
day, produced? Have your forces been diminished by them, or theirs
increased? I verily do not seem to be talking to my own troops, or
to Roman soldiers. The bodies and the arms are the same. Had you
possessed the same spirit, would the enemy have seen your backs? Would
they have carried off a standard from any company or cohort? Hitherto
he was wont to boast of having cut to pieces the Roman legions, but
yesterday you gave him the glory, for the first time, of having put
to flight an army." On this many soldiers began to call upon him to
pardon them for that day, and entreat that he would now, whenever he
pleased, make trial of the courage of his soldiers. "I will indeed
make trial of you," said he, "and to-morrow I will lead you into the
field, that in the character of conquerors, rather than conquered men,
you may obtain the pardon you seek." To the cohorts which had
lost their standards, he ordered that barley should be given. The
centurions of the Campanians, whose standards were lost, he left to
stand without their girdles and with their swords drawn; and gave
orders that all, both horse and foot, should be ready under arms
on the following day. Thus the assembly was dismissed; the soldiers
confessing that they had been justly and deservedly rebuked; and that
there was no one in the whole Roman army who had acquitted himself
like a man, except the general, to whom they were bound to make
atonement, either by their death or a glorious victory. The next
day they appeared in readiness, according to the order, armed and
equipped. The general praised them, and gave out, that "he should
lead into the first line those who had commenced the flight on the
preceding day, and those cohorts which had lost their standards. He
now charged them all to fight and conquer, and exert every effort, one
and all, that the intelligence of yesterday's flight might not arrive
at Rome before that of this day's victory." They were then ordered
to refresh themselves with food, in order that, if the fight should
continue longer than might be expected, their strength might not fail.
After every thing had been done and said, by which the courage of the
soldiers might be roused, they advanced into the field.

14. Hannibal, on receiving intelligence of this, said, "surely the
enemy we have to do with can neither bear good nor bad fortune. If he
is victorious, he fiercely pursues the vanquished. If conquered, he
renews the contest with the victors." He then ordered the signal to
be given, and led out his forces. The battle was fought on both sides
with much more spirit than the day before. The Carthaginians exerting
themselves to the utmost, to keep the glory they had acquired
yesterday; the Romans, to remove their disgrace. On the side of the
Romans, the left wing, and the cohorts which had lost their standards,
fought in the first line, and the twentieth legion was drawn up on
the right wing. Lucius Cornelius Lentulus and Caius Claudius Nero,
lieutenant-generals, commanded the wings, Marcellus gave vigour to the
centre by his presence, as an encourager and a witness. On the part
of Hannibal, the Spaniards, who were the flower of his whole army,
occupied the front line. After the battle had continued doubtful for
a long time, Hannibal ordered the elephants to be advanced into the
front line, if by that means any confusion or panic could be created.
At first, they threw the troops into confusion and broke their ranks,
and treading some under foot, and dispersing others who were round
them by the alarm they created, had made an opening in one part of the
Roman line; and the flight would have spread more widely had not Caius
Decimus Flavius, a military tribune seizing the standard of the first
maniple of the spearmen ordered that maniple to follow him. He led
them to the spot where the elephants, collected in a body, were
creating the greatest confusion, and ordered them to discharge their
javelins at them. As there was no difficulty in hitting such bulky
bodies at a short distance, and where so many were crowded together,
all their javelins stuck in them. But they were not all wounded, so
those in whose hides the javelins stuck, as that race of animals is
not to be depended on, by taking themselves to flight, drove away
those also which were untouched. At that moment not only one maniple,
but all the soldiers who could but overtake the body of retreating
elephants, threw their javelins at them, each man exerting himself to
his utmost. With so much greater impetuosity did the animals rush upon
their own men, and so much greater carnage did they make amongst
them than they had made amongst their enemies, in proportion as the
violence with which they are impelled, and the consternation produced
by them when under the influence of fear, is greater than when they
are ruled by their masters seated on their backs. The Roman infantry
bore their standards against the line of the enemy when thrown into
disorder by the elephants which had crossed over to them, and,
thus scattered and confused, led them to flight without any great
opposition. Marcellus sent his cavalry after them as they fled;
nor did they desist from the pursuit till they were driven in
consternation to their camp. For in addition to the other causes which
occasioned terror and dismay, two elephants had fallen just by the
gate, and the soldiers were compelled to rush into the camp over the
ditch and rampart. Here the greatest slaughter of the enemy occurred.
There fell as many as eight thousand men and five elephants. Nor did
the Romans gain a bloodless victory; about seventeen hundred of the
two legions, and thirteen hundred of the allies were slain; a great
number of the Romans and allies were wounded. The following night
Hannibal decamped. The great number of the wounded prevented Marcellus
from following him, as he desired.