Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 1, No. 7, May, 1858 by Various

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THE ATLANTIC MONTHLY.

A MAGAZINE OF LITERATURE, ART, AND POLITICS.

VOL. I.--MAY, 1858.--NO. VII.

AMERICAN ANTIQUITY.

The results of the past ten or fifteen years in historical investigation
are exceedingly mortifying to any one who has been proud to call himself
a student of History. We had thought, perhaps, that we knew something
of the origin of human events and the gradual development from the
past into the world of to-day. We had read Herodotus, and Gibbon,
and Gillies, and done manful duty with Rollin. There were certain
comfortable, definite facts in antiquity. Romulus and Remus were our
friends; the transmission of the alphabet by the Phoenicians was a
resting-spot; the destruction of Babylon and the date of the Flood were
fixed stations in the wilderness. In more modern periods, we had a
refuge in the date of the discovery of America; and if we were forced
back into the wilds and uncertainties of American History, Mr. Prescott
soon restored to us the buried empires, and led us easily back through a
few plain centuries.

Beyond these dates, indeed, there was a shadowy land, through whose
changing mists could be seen sometimes the grand outlines of abandoned
cities, or the faint forms of temples, or the graceful column or massive
tomb, which marked the distant path of the advancing race: but these
were scarcely more than visions for a moment, before darkness again
covered the view. Our mythology and philosophy of the past were almost
equally misty and vague. History was to us a succession of facts; empire
succeeding empire, and one form of civilization another, with scarcely
more connection than in the scenes of a theatre;--the great isolated
fact of all being the existence of the Jews. All cosmic myths and noble
conceptions of Deity and pure religious beliefs were only offshoots of
Hebrew tradition.

This, we are pained to say, is all changed now. Our beloved dates, our
easy explanation, and popular narrative are half dissolved under the
touch of modern investigation. Roman History abandons poor Romulus and
Remus; the Flood sinks into a local inundation, and is pushed back
nobody knows how many thousands of years; an Egyptian antiquity arises
of which Herodotus never knew; and Josephus is proved ignorant of his
own subject. Nothing is found separate from the current of the world's
history,--neither Hebrew law and religion, nor Phoenician commerce,
nor Hindoo mythology, nor Grecian art. On the shadowy Past, over the
deserted battle-fields, the burial-mounds, the mausolea, the temples,
the altars, and the habitations of perished nations, new rays of light
are cast. Peoples not heard of before, empires forgotten, conquests not
recorded, arts unknown in their place at this day, and civilizations of
which all has perished but the language, appear again. The world wakes
to find itself much older than it thought. History is hardly the same
study that it once was. Even more than the investigations of hieroglyphs
and bass-reliefs and sculptures, during the past few years, have the
researches in one especial direction changed the face of the ancient
world.

LANGUAGE is found to be itself the best record of a nation's origin,
development, and relation to other races. Each vocabulary and grammar
of a dead nation is a Nineveh, rich in pictures, inscriptions, and
historical records, uncovering to the patient investigator not merely
the external life and actions of the people, but their deepest internal
life, and their connection with other peoples and times. The little
defaced word, the cast-away root, the antique construction, picked up
by the student among the vestiges of a language, may be a relic fresher
from the past and older than a stone from the Pyramids, or the sculpture
of the Assyrian temple.

In American history, this work of investigation till recently had not
been thoroughly entered upon. Within the last quarter of a century,
Kingsborough and Gallatin and Prescott and Davis and Squier and
Schoolcraft and Mueller have each thrown some light over the mysterious
antiquity of our own continent. But of all, a French Abbe, an
ethnologist and a careful investigator,--M. BRASSEUR DE BOURBOURG,--has,
in a history recently published, done the best service to this cause. It
is entitled "Histoire des Nations Civilisees du Mexique et de l'Amerique
Centrale." (Paris, 1857.) M. de Bourbourg spent many years in Central
America, studying the face of the country and the languages of the
Indian tribes, and investigating the ancient picture-writing and the
remains of the wonderful ruins of that region. Probably no stranger has
ever enjoyed better opportunities of reading the ancient manuscripts and
studying the dialects of the Central American races. With these helps he
has prepared a groundwork for the history of the early civilized peoples
of our American continent,--a history, it should be remembered, ending
where Prescott's begins,--reaching back, possibly, as far as the
earliest invasions of the Huns, and one of whose fixed dates is at the
time of the Antonines. He has ventured to lift, at length, the veil from
our mysterious and confused American antiquity. It is an especial merit
of M. de Bourbourg, in this stage of the investigation, that he has
attempted to do no more. He has collected and collated facts, but
has sought to give us very few theories. The stable philosophical
conclusions he leaves for later research, when time shall have been
afforded for fuller comparison.

There is an incredible fascination to many minds in these investigations
into the traditions and beliefs of antiquity. We feel in their presence
that they are the oldest things; the most ancient books, or buildings,
or sculptures are modern by their side. They represent the childish
instincts of the human mind,--its _gropings_ after Truth,--its dim
ideals and shadowings forth of what it hopes will be. They are the
earliest answers of man to the great questions, WHENCE and WHITHER?

* * * * *

The most ancient people of Central America, according to M. de
Bourbourg,--a people referred to in all the oldest traditions, but of
whom everything except the memory has passed away,--are the Quinames.
Their rule extended over Mexico and Guatemala, and there is reason to
suppose that they attained to a considerable height of civilization. The
only accounts of their origin are the oral traditions repeated to the
Spaniards by the Indians of Yucatan,--traditions relating that the
fathers of this great nation came from the East, and that God had
delivered them from the pursuit of their enemies and had opened to
them a way over the sea. Other traditions reveal to us the Quinames as
delivered up to the most unnatural vices of ancient society. Whether
the Cyclopean ruins scattered over the continent,--vast masses of
stone placed one upon another without cement, which existed before the
splendid cities whose ruins are yet seen in Central America,--whether
these are the work of this race, or of one still older, is entirely
uncertain.

The most ancient language of Central America, the ground on which all
the succeeding languages have been planted, is the Maya. Even the Indian
languages of to-day are only combinations of their own idioms with this
ancient tongue. Its daughter, the Tzendale, transmits many of the oldest
and most interesting religious beliefs of the Indian tribes.

All the traditions, whether in the Quiche, the Mexican, or the Tzendale,
unite in one somewhat remarkable belief,--in the reverent mention of an
ancient Deliverer or Benefactor; a personage so enveloped in the halo
of religious sentiment and the mist of remote antiquity, that it is
difficult to distinguish his real form. With the Tzendale his name is
Votan;[A] among the many other names in other languages, Quetzalcohuatl
is the one most distinctive. Sometimes he appears as a wise and
dignified legislator, arrived suddenly among an ignorant people from an
unknown country, to instruct them in agriculture, the arts, and even in
religion. He bears suffering in their behalf, patiently labors for them,
and, when at length he has done his work, departs alone from amid the
weeping crowd to the country of his birth. Sometimes he is the mediator
between Deity and men; then again, a personification of the Divine
wisdom and glory; and still again, the noble features seem to be
transmuted in the confused tradition into the countenance of Divinity.
Whether this mysterious person is only the American embodiment of
the Hope of all Nations, or whether he was truly a wise and noble
legislator, driven by some accident to these shores from a foreign
country, and afterwards glorified by the gratitude of his people,
is uncertain, though our author inclines naturally to the latter
supposition. The expression of the Tzendale tradition, "Votan is
the first man whom God sent to divide and distribute these lands of
America," (Vol. I. p. 42,) indicates that he found the continent
inhabited, and either originated the distribution of property or became
a conqueror of the country. The evidence of tradition would clearly
prove that at the arrival of Votan the great proportion of the
inhabitants, from the Isthmus of Panama to the territories of
California, were in a savage condition. The builders of the Cyclopean
ruins were the only exception.

[Footnote A: The resemblance of this name to the Teutonic Wuotan or Odin
is certainly striking and will afford a new argument to the enthusiastic
Rafn, and other advocates of a Scandinavian colonization of
America.--Edd.]

The various traditions agree that this elevated being, the father of
American civilization, inculcated first of all a belief in a Supreme
Creator, Lord of Heaven and Earth. It is a singular fact, that the
ancient Quiche tradition represents the Deity as a Triad, or Trinity,
with the deified heroes arranged in orders below,--a representation not
improbably connected with the Hindoo conception. The belief in a Supreme
Being seems to have been generally diffused among the Central American
and Mexican tribes, even as late as the arrival of the Spaniards. The
Mexicans adored Him under the name of Ipalnemoaloni, or "Him in whom and
by whom we are and live." This "God of all purity," as he is
addressed in a Mexican prayer, was too elevated for vulgar thought or
representation. No altars or temples were erected to him; and it was
only under one of the later kings of the Aztec monarchy that a temple
was built to the "Unknown God."--Vol. I. p. 46.

The founders of the early American civilization bear various titles:
they are called "The Master of the Mountain," "The Heart of the Lake,"
"The Master of the Azure Surface," and the like. Even in the native
traditions, the questions are often asked: "Whence came these men?"
"Under what climate were they born?" One authority answers thus
mysteriously: "They have clearly come from the other shore of the
sea,--from the place which is called 'Camuhifal,'--_The place
where is shadow."_ Why may not this singular expression refer to a
Northern country,--a place where is a long shadow, a winter-night?

A singular characteristic of the ancient Indian legends is the mingling
of two separate courses of tradition. In their poetic conceptions, and
perhaps under the hands of their priests, the old myths of the Creation
are constantly confused with the accounts of the first periods of their
civilization.

The following is the most ancient legend of the Creation, from the MSS.
of Chichicastenango, in the Quiche text: "When all that was necessary to
be created in heaven and on earth was finished, the heaven being formed,
its angles measured and lined, its limits fixed, the lines and parallels
put in their place in heaven and on earth, heaven found itself created,
and Heaven it was called by the Creator and Maker, the Father and
Mother of Life and Existence, ... the Mother of Thought and Wisdom, the
excellence of all that is in heaven and on earth, in the lakes or the
sea. It is thus that he called himself, when all was tranquil and calm,
when all was peaceable and silent, when nothing had movement in the void
of the heavens."--Vol. I. p. 48.

In the narrative of the succeeding work of creation, says M. de
Bourbourg, there is always a double sense. Creation and life are
civilization; the silence and calm of Nature before the existence of
animated beings are the calm and tranquillity of Ocean, over which a
sail is flying towards an unknown shore; and the first aspect of the
shores of America, with its mighty mountains and great rivers, is
confounded with the first appearance of the earth from the chaos of
waters.

"This is the first word," says the Quiche text. "There were neither men,
nor animals, nor birds, nor fishes, nor wood, nor stones, nor valleys,
nor herbs, nor forests. There was only the heaven. The image of the
earth did not yet show itself. There was only the sea, on all sides
surrounded by the heaven ... Nothing had motion, and not the least sigh
agitated the air ... In the midst of this calm and this tranquillity,
was only the Father and the Maker, in the obscurity of the night; there
were only the Fathers and Generators on the whitening water, and they
were clad in azure raiment... And it is on account of them that heaven
exists, and exists equally the Heart of Heaven, which is the name of
God."--Vol. I. p. 51. [B]

[Footnote B: Compare the Hindoo conception, translated from one of the
old Vedic legends, in Bunsen's _Philosophy of History_:--

"Nor Aught nor Nought existed; yon bright
sky
Was not, nor heaven's broad roof outstretched
above.
What covered all? What sheltered? What
concealed?
Was it the waters' fathomless abyss?
There was not death,--yet was there nought
immortal.
There was no confine betwixt day and night.
The only One breathed breathless by itself;--
Other than it there nothing since has been.
Darkness there was, and all at first was veiled
In gloom profound,--an ocean without light.
The germ that still lay covered in the husk
Burst forth, one nature, from the fervent
heat."]

The legend then pictures a council between these "Fathers" and the
Supreme Creator; after which, the word is spoken, and the earth bursts
forth from the darkness, with its great mountains and forests and
animals and birds, as they might to a voyager approaching the shore. An
episode occurs, describing a deluge, but still bearing in it the
traces of the double tradition,--the one referring to some primeval
catastrophe, and the other to a local inundation, which had perhaps
surprised the first legislators in the midst of their efforts. The
Mexican tradition (Codex Chimalpopoca) shows more distinctly the united
action of the Mediator (Quetzalcohuatl) and the Deity:--"From ashes had
God created man and animated him, and they say it is Quetzalcohuatl who
hath perfected him who had been made, and hath _breathed into him, on
the seventh day, the breath of life_."

Another legend, after describing the creation of men of wood, and women
of _cibak_, (the marrow of the corn-flag,) tells us that "the fathers
and the children, from want of intelligence, did not use the language
which they had received to praise the benefaction of their creation, and
never thought of raising their eyes to praise Hurakan. Then were they
destroyed in an inundation. There descended from heaven a rain of
bitumen and resin... And on account of them, the earth was obscured; and
it rained night and day. And men went and came, out of themselves, as if
struck with madness. They wished to mount upon the roofs, and the houses
fell beneath them; when they took refuge in the caves and the
grottoes, these closed over them. This was their punishment and
destruction."--Vol. I. p. 55.

In the Mexican tradition, instead of the rain we find a violent eruption
of the volcanoes, and men are changed into fishes, and again into
_chicime_,--which may designate the barbarian tribes that invaded
Central America.

In still another tradition, the Deity and his associates are more
plainly men of superior intelligence, laboring to civilize savage
races; and finally, when they cannot inspire two essential elements of
civilization,--a taste for labor, and the religious idea,--a sudden
inundation delivers them from the indocile people. Then--so far as the
mysterious language of the legend can be interpreted--they appear to
have withdrawn themselves to a more teachable race. But with these
the difficulty for the new law-givers is that they find nothing
corresponding to the productions of the country from which they had
come. Fruits are in abundance, but there is no grain which requires
culture, and which would give origin to a continued industry. The legend
relates, somewhat naively, the hunger and distress of these elevated
beings, until at length they discover the maize, and other nutritious
fruits and grains in the county of Paxil and Cayala.

Our author places these latter in the state of Chiapas, and the
countries watered by the Usumasinta. The provinces of Mexico and the
Atlantic border of Central America he supposes to be those where the
first legislators of America landed, and where was the cradle of the
first American civilization. In these regions, the great city attributed
to Votan,--Palenque,--the ruins of whose magnificent temples and palaces
even yet astonish the traveller, was one of the first products of this
civilization.

With regard to the much-vexed question of the origin of the Indian
races, M. de Bourbourg offers no theory. In his view, the evidence from
language establishes no certain connection between the Indian tribes and
any other race whatever; though, as he justly remarks, the knowledge of
the languages of the Northeast of Asia and of the interior of America is
yet very limited, and more complete investigations must be waited for
before any very satisfactory conclusions can be attained. The similarity
of the Indian languages points without doubt to a common origin, while
their variety and immense number are indications of a high antiquity;
for who can estimate the succession of years necessary to subdivide a
common tongue into so many languages, and to give birth out of a savage
or nomadic life to a civilization like that of the Aztecs?

In the passage of man from one hemisphere to another he sees no
difficulty; as, without considering Behring's Strait, the voyage, from
Mantchooria, or Japan, following the chain of the Koorile and the
Aleutian Isles, even to the Peninsula of Alaska, would be an enterprise
of no great hazard.

The traditions of the Indian tribes, as well as their monumental
inscriptions, point to an Eastern origin. From whatever direction the
particular tribe may have emigrated, they always speak of their fathers
as having come from the rising of the sun. The Quiche, as well as the
Chippeway traditions, allude to the voyages of their fathers from the
East, from a cold and icy region, through a cloudy and wintry sea, to
countries as cold and gloomy, from which they again turned towards the
South.

Without committing himself to a theory, M. de Bourbourg supposes that
one race--the Quiche--has passed through the whole North American
continent, erecting at different stages of its civilization those
gigantic and mysterious pyramids, the _tumuli_ of the Mississippi
Valley,--of whose origin the present Northern Indian tribes have
preserved no trace, and for whose erection no single American tribe
now would have the wealth or the superfluous labor. This race was
continually driven towards the South by more savage tribes, and it at
length reached its favorite seats and the height of its civilization in
Central America. In comparing the similar monuments of Southern Siberia,
and the dates of the immigration to the Aztec plateau, with those of
the first movements of the Huns and the great revolutions in Asia, an
indication is given, worthy of being followed up by the ethnologist,
of the Asiatic origin of the Central American tribes. The traditions,
monuments, customs, mythology, and astronomic systems all point to a
similar source.

The thorough study of the aboriginal races reveals the fact, that the
whole continent, from the Arctic regions to the Southern Pole, was
divided irregularly between two distinct families;--one nomadic
and savage, the other agricultural and semi-civilized; one with no
institutions or polity or organized religion, the other with regular
forms of government and hierarchical and religious systems. Though
differing so widely, and little associated with each other, they
possessed an analogous physical constitution, analogous customs, idioms,
and grammatical forms, many of which were entirely different from those
of the Old World.

At the period of the discovery of America, not a single tribe west of
the Rocky Mountains possessed the least agricultural skill. Whether the
superiority of the Central American and Mexican tribes was due to
more favorable circumstances and a more genial climate, or to the
instructions of foreign legislators, as their traditions relate, our
author does not decide. In his view, American agriculture originated in
Central America, and was not one of the sciences brought over by the
tribes who first emigrated from Asia.

Of the architectural ruins found in Central America M. de Bourbourg
says: "Among the edifices forgotten by Time in the forests of Mexico and
Central America are found architectural characteristics so different
from one another, that it is as impossible to attribute their
construction to one and the same people, as it is to suppose that they
were built at the same epoch.... The ruins that are the most ancient and
that have the most resemblance to one another are those which have been
discovered in the country of the Lacandous, the foundations of the city
of Mayapan, some buildings of Tulha, and the greater part of those
of Palenque; it is probable that they belong to the first period of
American civilization."--Vol. I. p. 85.

The truly historical records of Central America go back to a period but
little before the Christian era. Beyond that epoch, we behold through
the mists of legends, and in the defaced pictures and sculptures, a
hierarchical despotism sustained by the successors of the mysterious
Votan. The empire of the Votanides is at length ruined by its own vices
and by the attacks of a vigorous race, whose records and language have
come down even to our day,--the only race on the American continent
whose name has been preserved in the memory of the peoples after the
ruin of its power, the only one whose institutions have survived its own
existence,--the Xahoa, or Toltec.

Of all the American languages, the Nahuatl holds the highest place, for
its richness of expression and its sonorous tone,--adapting itself with
equal flexibility to the most sublime and analytic terms of metaphysics,
and to the uses of ordinary life, so that even at this day the
Englishman and the Spaniard employ its vocabulary for natural objects.

The traditions of the Nahoas describe their life in the distant Oriental
country from which they came:--"There they multiplied to a considerable
degree, and lived without civilization. They had not then acquired the
habit of separating themselves from the places which had seen them born;
they paid no tributes; and all spoke a single language. They worshipped
neither wood nor stone; they contented themselves with raising their
eyes to heaven and observing the law of the Creator. They waited with
respect for the rising of the sun, saluting with their invocations the
morning star."

This is their prayer, handed down in Indian tradition,--the oldest piece
extant of American liturgy:--"Hail, Creator and Former! Regard us!
Listen to us! Heart of Heaven! Heart of the Earth! do not leave us! Do
not abandon us, God of Heaven and Earth!... Grant us repose, a glorious
repose, peace and prosperity! the perfection of life and of our being
grant to us, O Hurakan!"

What country and what sun nourished this worship and gave origin to this
great people is as uncertain as all other facts of the early American
history. They came from the East, the tradition says; they landed, it
seems certain, at Panuco, near the present port of Tampico, from seven
barks or ships. Other traditions represent them as accompanied by sages
with venerable beards and flowing robes. They finally settled somewhere
on the coast between Campeachy and the river Tabasco, and founded the
ancient city of Xicalanco. Their chief, who in the reverent affection of
the nation became afterwards their Deity, was Quetzalcohuatl. The
myths which surround his name reveal to us a wise legislator and noble
benefactor. He is seen instructing them in the arts, in religion, and
finally in agriculture, by introducing the cultivation of maize and
other cereals.

Whether he had become the object of envy among the people, or whether he
felt that his work was done, it appears, so far as the vague traditions
can be understood, that he at length determined to return to the unknown
country whence he had come. He gathered his brethren around him and thus
addressed them:--"Know," said he, "that the Lord your God commands you
to dwell in these lands which he hath subjected to you this day. For
him, he returns whence he has come. But he goes only to return later;
for he will visit you again, when the time shall have arrived in which
the world shall have come to an end.[C] In the mean while wait, ye
others, in these countries, with the hope of seeing him again!...Thus
farewell, while we depart with our God!"

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