Scientific American Supplement, No. 460, October 25, 1884 by Various

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We find it to be the general opinion at present, as it perhaps has always
been among lumbermen and those who work among timber, that the sap of a
tree is an evil which must be avoided if possible, for it is this which
causes decay and destroys the life and good qualities of all wood when
allowed to remain in it for an unusual length of time, but that this is a
mistaken idea I will endeavor to show, not that the decay is due to the
sap, but to the time when the tree was felled.

We find by experiment in evaporating a quantity of sap of the pine, that it
is water holding in solution a substance of a gummy nature, being composed
of albumen and other elementary matters, which is deposited within the
pores of the wood from the new growth of the tree; that these substances in
solution, which constitute the sap, and which promote the growth of the
tree, should have a tendency to cause decay of the wood is an
impossibility. The injury results from the water only, and the improper
time of felling the tree.

Of the process in which the sap promotes the growth of the tree, the
scientist informs us that it is extracted from the soil, and flows up
through the pores of the wood of the tree, where it is deposited upon the
fiber, and by a peculiar process of nature the albumen forms new cells,
which in process of formation crowd and push out from the center, thus
constituting the growth of the tree in all directions from center to
circumference. Consequently this new growth of wood, being composed
principally of albumen, is of a soft, spongy nature, and under the proper
conditions will decay very rapidly, which can be easily demonstrated by
experiment.

Hence, we must infer that the proper time for felling the tree is when the
conditions are such that the rapid decay of a new growth of wood is
impossible; and this I have found by experiment to be in early summer,
after the sap has ascended the tree, but before any new growth of wood has
been formed. The new growth of the previous season is now well matured, has
become hard and firm, and will not decay. On the contrary, the tree being
cut when such new growth has not well matured, decay soon takes place, and
the value of the timber is destroyed. The effect of this cutting and use of
timber under the wrong conditions can be seen all around us. In the timbers
of the bridges, in the trestlework and ties of railroads and in the piling
of the wharves will be found portions showing rapid decay, while other
portions are yet firm and in sound condition.

Much more might be said in the explanation of this subject, but not wishing
to extend the subject to an improper length, I will close. I would,
however, say in conclusion that persons who have the opportunities and the
inclination can verify the truth of a portion, at least, of what I have
stated, in a simple manner and in a short time; for instance, by cutting
two or three young fir or spruce saplings, say about six inches in
diameter, mark them when cut, and also mark the stumps by driving pegs
marked to correspond with the trees. Continue this monthly for the space of
about one year, and note the difference in the wood, which should be left
out and exposed to the weather until seasoned.

C.W. HASKINS.

* * * * *

RAISING FERNS FROM SPORES.

[Illustration: 1, PAN; 2, BELL GLASS; 3, SMALL POTS AND LABELS.]

This plan, of which I give a sketch, has been in use by myself for many
years, and most successfully. I have at various times given it to growers,
but still I hear of difficulties. Procure a good sized bell-glass and an
earthenware pan without any holes for drainage. Prepare a number of small
pots, all filled for sowing, place them inside the pan, and fit the glass
over them, so that it takes all in easily. Take these filled small pots out
of the pan, place them on the ground, and well water them with boiling
water to destroy all animal and vegetable life, and allow them to get
perfectly cold; use a fine rose. Then taking each small pot separately, sow
the spores on the surface and label them; do this with the whole number,
and then place them in the pan under the bell-glass. This had better be
done in a room, so that nothing foreign can grow inside. Having arranged
the pots and placed the glass over them, and which should fit down upon the
pan with ease, take a clean sponge, and tearing it up pack the pieces round
the outside of the glass, and touching the inner side of the pan all round.
Water this with cold water, so that the sponge is saturated. Do this
whenever required, and always use water that has been boiled. At the end of
six weeks or so the prothallus will perhaps appear, certainly in a week or
two more; perhaps from unforeseen circumstances not for three months.
Slowly these will begin to show themselves as young ferns, and most
interesting it is to watch the results. As the ferns are gradually
increasing in size pass a small piece of slate under the edge of the
bell-glass to admit air, and do this by very careful degrees, allowing more
and more air to reach them. Never water overhead until the seedlings are
acclimated and have perfect form as ferns, and even then water at the edges
of the pots. In due time carefully prick out, and the task so interesting
to watch is performed.--_The Garden_.

* * * * *

THE LIFE HISTORY OF VAUCHERIA.

[Footnote: Read before the San Francisco Microscopical Society, August 13,
and furnished for publication in the _Press_.]

By A.H. BRECKENFELD.

Nearly a century ago, Vaucher, the celebrated Genevan botanist, described a
fresh water filamentous alga which he named _Ectosperma geminata_, with a
correctness that appears truly remarkable when the imperfect means of
observation at his command are taken into consideration. His pupil, De
Candolle, who afterward became so eminent a worker in the same field, when
preparing his "Flora of France," in 1805, proposed the name of _Vaucheria_
for the genus, in commemoration of the meritorious work of its first
investigator. On March 12, 1826, Unger made the first recorded observation
of the formation and liberation of the terminal or non-sexual spores of
this plant. Hassall, the able English botanist, made it the subject of
extended study while preparing his fine work entitled "A History of the
British Fresh Water Algae," published in 1845. He has given us a very
graphic description of the phenomenon first observed by Unger. In 1856
Pringsheim described the true sexual propagation by oospores, with such
minuteness and accuracy that our knowledge of the plant can scarcely be
said to have essentially increased since that time.

[Illustration: GROWTH OF THE ALGA, VAUCHERIA, UNDER THE MICROSCOPE.]

_Vaucheria_ has two or three rather doubtful marine species assigned to it
by Harvey, but the fresh water forms are by far the more numerous, and it
is to some of these I would call your attention for a few moments this
evening. The plant grows in densely interwoven tufts, these being of a
vivid green color, while the plant is in the actively vegetative condition,
changing to a duller tint as it advances to maturity. Its habitat (with the
exceptions above noted) is in freshwater--usually in ditches or slowly
running streams. I have found it at pretty much all seasons of the year, in
the stretch of boggy ground in the Presidio, bordering the road to Fort
Point. The filaments attain a length of several inches when fully
developed, and are of an average diameter of 1/250 (0.004) inch. They
branch but sparingly, or not at all, and are characterized by consisting of
a single long tube or cell, not divided by septa, as in the case of the
great majority of the filamentous algae. These tubular filaments are
composed of a nearly transparent cellulose wall, including an inner layer
thickly studded with bright green granules of chlorophyl. This inner layer
is ordinarily not noticeable, but it retracts from the outer envelope when
subjected to the action of certain reagents, or when immersed in a fluid
differing in density from water, and it then becomes distinctly visible, as
may be seen in the engraving (Fig. 1). The plant grows rapidly and is
endowed with much vitality, for it resists changes of temperature to a
remarkable degree. _Vaucheria_ affords a choice hunting ground to the
microscopist, for its tangled masses are the home of numberless infusoria,
rotifers, and the minuter crustacea, while the filaments more advanced in
age are usually thickly incrusted with diatoms. Here, too, is a favorite
haunt of the beautiful zoophytes, _Hydra vividis_ and _H. vulgaris_, whose
delicate tentacles may be seen gracefully waving in nearly every gathering.

REPRODUCTION IN VAUCHERIA.

After the plant has attained a certain stage in its growth, if it be
attentively watched, a marked change will be observed near the ends of the
filaments. The chlorophyl appears to assume a darker hue, and the granules
become more densely crowded. This appearance increases until the extremity
of the tube appears almost swollen. Soon the densely congregated granules
at the extreme end will be seen to separate from the endochrome of the
filament, a clear space sometimes, but not always, marking the point of
division. Here a septum or membrane appears, thus forming a cell whose
length is about three or four times its width, and whose walls completely
inclose the dark green mass of crowded granules (Fig. 1, b). These contents
are now gradually forming themselves into the spore or "gonidium," as
Carpenter calls it, in distinction from the true sexual spores, which he
terms "oospores." At the extreme end of the filament (which is obtusely
conical in shape) the chlorophyl grains retract from the old cellulose
wall, leaving a very evident clear space. In a less noticeable degree, this
is also the case in the other parts of the circumference of the cell, and,
apparently, the granular contents have secreted a separate envelope
entirely distinct from the parent filament. The grand climax is now rapidly
approaching. The contents of the cell near its base are now so densely
clustered as to appear nearly black (Fig. 1, c), while the upper half is of
a much lighter hue and the separate granules are there easily
distinguished, and, if very closely watched, show an almost imperceptible
motion. The old cellulose wall shows signs of great tension, its conical
extremity rounding out under the slowly increasing pressure from within.
Suddenly it gives way at the apex. At the same instant, the inclosed
gonidium (for it is now seen to be fully formed) acquires a rotary motion,
at first slow, but gradually increasing until it has gained considerable
velocity. Its upper portion is slowly twisted through the opening in the
apex of the parent wall, the granular contents of the lower end flowing
into the extruded portion in a manner reminding one of the flow of
protoplasm in a living amoeba. The old cell wall seems to offer
considerable resistance to the escape of the gonidium, for the latter,
which displays remarkable elasticity, is pinched nearly in two while
forcing its way through, assuming an hour glass shape when about half out.
The rapid rotation of the spore continues during the process of emerging,
and after about a minute it has fully freed itself (Fig 1, a). It
immediately assumes the form of an ellipse or oval, and darts off with
great speed, revolving on its major axis as it does so. Its contents are
nearly all massed in the posterior half, the comparatively clear portion
invariably pointing in advance. When it meets an obstacle, it partially
flattens itself against it, then turns aside and spins off in a new
direction. This erratic motion is continued for usually seven or eight
minutes. The longest duration I have yet observed was a little over nine
and one-half minutes. Hassall records a case where it continued for
nineteen minutes. The time, however, varies greatly, as in some cases the
motion ceases almost as soon as the spore is liberated, while in open
water, unretarded by the cover glass or other obstacles, its movements have
been seen to continue for over two hours.

The motile force is imparted to the gonidium by dense rows of waving cilia
with which it is completely surrounded. Owing to their rapid vibration, it
is almost impossible to distinguish them while the spore is in active
motion, but their effect is very plainly seen on adding colored pigment
particles to the water. By subjecting the cilia to the action of iodine,
their motion is arrested, they are stained brown, and become very plainly
visible.

After the gonidium comes gradually to a rest its cilia soon disappear, it
becomes perfectly globular in shape, the inclosed granules distribute
themselves evenly throughout its interior, and after a few hours it
germinates by throwing out one, two, or sometimes three tubular
prolongations, which become precisely like the parent filament (Fig 2).

Eminent English authorities have advanced the theory that the ciliated
gonidium of _Vaucheria_ is in reality a densely crowded aggregation of
biciliated zoospores, similar to those found in many other confervoid algae.
Although this has by no means been proved, yet I cannot help calling the
attention of the members of this society to a fact which I think strongly
bears out the said theory: While watching a gathering of _Vaucheria_ one
morning when the plant was in the gonidia-forming condition (which is
usually assumed a few hours after daybreak), I observed one filament, near
the end of which a septum had formed precisely as in the case of ordinary
filaments about to develop a spore. But, instead of the terminal cell being
filled with the usual densely crowded cluster of dark green granules
constituting the rapidly forming spore, it contained hundreds of actively
moving, nearly transparent zoospores, _and nothing else_. Not a single
chlorophyl granule was to be seen. It is also to be noted as a significant
fact, that the cellulose wall was _intact_ at the apex, instead of showing
the opening through which in ordinary cases the gonidium escapes. It would
seem to be a reasonable inference, I think, based upon the theory above
stated, that in this case the newly formed gonidium, unable to escape from
its prison by reason of the abnormal strength of the cell wall, became
after a while resolved into its component zoospores.

WONDERS OF REPRODUCTION.

I very much regret that my descriptive powers are not equal to conveying a
sufficient idea of the intensely absorbing interest possessed by this
wonderful process of spore formation. I shall never forget the bright sunny
morning when for the first time I witnessed the entire process under the
microscope, and for over four hours scarcely moved my eyes from the tube.
To a thoughtful observer I doubt if there is anything in the whole range of
microscopy to exceed this phenomenon in point of startling interest. No
wonder that its first observer published his researches under the caption
of "The Plant at the Moment of becoming an Animal."

FORMATION OF OTHER SPORES.

The process of spore formation just described, it will be seen, is entirely
non-sexual, being simply a vegetative process, analogous to the budding of
higher plants, and the fission of some of the lower plants and animals.
_Vaucheria_ has, however, a second and far higher mode of reproduction,
viz., by means of fertilized cells, the true oospores, which, lying dormant
as resting spores during the winter, are endowed with new life by the
rejuvenating influences of spring. Their formation may be briefly described
as follows:

When _Vaucheria_ has reached the proper stage in its life cycle, slight
swellings appear here and there on the sides of the filament. Each of these
slowly develops into a shape resembling a strongly curved horn. This
becomes the organ termed the _antheridium_, from its analogy in function to
the anther of flowering plants. While this is in process of growth,
peculiar oval capsules or sporangia (usually 2 to 5 in number) are formed
in close proximity to the antheridium. In some species both these organs
are sessile on the main filament, in others they appear on a short pedicel
(Figs. 3 and 4). The upper part of the antheridium becomes separated from
the parent stem by a septum, and its contents are converted into ciliated
motile antherozoids. The adjacent sporangia also become cut off by septa,
and the investing membrane, when mature, opens: it a beak-like
prolongation, thus permitting the inclosed densely congregated green
granules to be penetrated by the antherozoids which swarm from the
antheridium at the same time. After being thus fertilized the contents of
the sporangium acquire a peculiar oily appearance, of a beautiful emerald
color, an exceedingly tough but transparent envelope is secreted, and thus
is constituted the fully developed oospore, the beginner of a new
generation of the plant. After the production of this oospore the parent
filament gradually loses its vitality and slowly decays.

The spore being thus liberated, sinks to the bottom. Its brilliant hue has
faded and changed to a reddish brown, but after a rest of about three
months (according to Pringsheim, who seems to be the only one who has ever
followed the process of oospore formation entirely through), the spore
suddenly assumes its original vivid hue and germinates into a young
_Vaucheria_.

CHARM OF MICROSCOPICAL STUDY.

This concludes the account of my very imperfect attempt to trace the life
history of a lowly plant. Its study has been to me a source of ever
increasing pleasure, and has again demonstrated how our favorite instrument
reveals phenomena of most absorbing interest in directions where the
unaided eye finds but little promise. In walking along the banks of the
little stream, where, half concealed by more pretentious plants, our humble
_Vaucheria_ grows, the average passer by, if he notices it at all, sees but
a tangled tuft of dark green "scum." Yet, when this is examined under the
magic tube, a crystal cylinder, closely set with sparkling emeralds, is
revealed. And although so transparent, so apparently simple in structure
that it does not seem possible for even the finest details to escape our
search, yet almost as we watch it mystic changes appear. We see the bright
green granules, impelled by an unseen force, separate and rearrange
themselves in new formations. Strange outgrowths from the parent filament
appear. The strange power we call "life," doubly mysterious when manifested
in an organism so simple as this, so open to our search, seems to challenge
us to discover its secret, and, armed with our glittering lenses and our
flashing stands of exquisite workmanship, we search intently, but in vain.
And yet _not_ in vain, for we are more than recompensed by the wondrous
revelations beheld and the unalloyed pleasures enjoyed, through the study
of even the unpretentious _Vaucheria_.

The amplification of the objects in the engravings is about 80 diameters.

* * * * *

JAPANESE CAMPHOR--ITS PREPARATION, EXPERIMENTS, AND ANALYSIS OF THE
CAMPHOR OIL.

[Footnote: From the Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry.]

By H. OISHI. (Communicated by Kakamatsa.)

LAURUS CAMPHORA, or "kusunoki," as it is called in Japan, grows mainly in
those provinces in the islands Shikobu and Kinshin, which have the southern
sea coast. It also grows abundantly in the province of Kishu.

The amount of camphor varies according to the age of the tree. That of a
hundred years old is tolerably rich in camphor. In order to extract the
camphor, such a tree is selected; the trunk and large stems are cut into
small pieces, and subjected to distillation with steam.

An iron boiler of 3 feet in diameter is placed over a small furnace, the
boiler being provided with an iron flange at the top. Over this flange a
wooden tub is placed, which is somewhat narrowed at the top, being 1 foot 6
inches in the upper, and 2 feet 10 inches in the lower diameter, and 4 feet
in height. The tub has a false bottom for the passage of steam from the
boiler beneath. The upper part of the tub is connected with a condensing
apparatus by means of a wooden or bamboo pipe. The condenser is a flat
rectangular wooden vessel, which is surrounded with another one containing
cold water. Over the first is placed still another trough of the same
dimensions, into which water is supplied to cool the vessel at the top.
After the first trough has been filled with water, the latter flows into
the next by means of a small pipe attached to it. In order to expose a
large surface to the vapors, the condensing trough is fitted internally
with a number of vertical partitions, which are open at alternate ends, so
that the vapors may travel along the partitions in the trough from one end
to the other. The boiler is filled with water, and 120 kilogrammes of
chopped pieces of wood are introduced into the tub, which is then closed
with a cover, cemented with clay, so as to make it air-tight. Firing is
then begun; the steam passes into the tub, and thus carries the vapors of
camphor and oil into the condenser, in which the camphor solidifies, and
is mixed with the oil and condensed water. After twenty-four hours the
charge is taken out from the tub, and new pieces of the wood are
introduced, and distillation is conducted as before. The water in the
boiler must be supplied from time to time. The exhausted wood is dried and
used as fuel. The camphor and oil accumulated in the trough are taken out
in five or ten days, and they are separated from each other by filtration.
The yield of the camphor and oil varies greatly in different seasons. Thus
much more solid camphor is obtained in winter than in summer, while the
reverse is the case with the oil. In summer, from 120 kilogrammes of the
wood 2.4 kilogrammes, or 2 per cent. of the solid camphor are obtained in
one day, while in winter, from the same amount of the wood, 3 kilogrammes,
or 2.5 per cent., of camphor are obtainable at the same time.

The amount of the oil obtained in ten days, _i.e._, from 10 charges or
1,200 kilogrammes of the wood, in summer is about 18 liters, while in
winter it amounts only to 5-7 liters. The price of the solid camphor is
at present about 1s. 1d. per kilo.

The oil contains a considerable amount of camphor in solution, which is
separated by a simple distillation and cooling. By this means about 20 per
cent. of the camphor can be obtained from the oil. The author subjected the
original oil to fractioned distillation, and examined different fractions
separately. That part of the oil which distilled between 180 deg.-185 deg. O. was
analyzed after repeated distillations. The following is the result:

Found. Calculated as
C_{10}H_{16}O.

C = 78.87 78.95
H = 10.73 10.52
O = 10.40 (by difference) 10.52

The composition thus nearly agrees with that of the ordinary camphor.

The fraction between 178 deg.-180 deg. C., after three distillations, gave the
following analytical result:

C = 86.95
H = 12.28
-----
99.23

It appears from this result that the body is a hydrocarbon. The vapor
density was then determined by V. Meyer's apparatus, and was found to be
5.7 (air=1). The molecular weight of the compound is therefore 5.7 x 14.42
x 2 = 164.4, which gives

H = (164.4 x 12.28)/100 = 20.18
or C_{12}H_{20}
C = (164.4 x 86.95)/100 = 11.81

Hence it is a hydrocarbon of the terpene series, having the general formula
C^{n}H^(2n-4). From the above experiments it seems to be probable that
the camphor oil is a complicated mixture, consisting of hydrocarbons of
terpene series, oxy-hydrocarbons isomeric with camphor, and other oxidized
hydrocarbons.

_Application of the Camphor Oil_.

The distinguishing property of the camphor oil, that it dissolves many
resins, and mixes with drying oils, finds its application for the
preparation of varnish. The author has succeeded in preparing various
varnishes with the camphor oil, mixed with different resins and oils.
Lampblack was also prepared by the author, by subjecting the camphor oil to
incomplete combustion. In this way from 100 c.c. of the oil, about 13
grammes of soot of a very good quality were obtained. Soot or lampblack is
a very important material in Japan for making inks, paints, etc. If the
manufacture of lampblack from the cheap camphor oil is conducted on a large
scale, it would no doubt be profitable. The following is the report on the
amount of the annual production of camphor in the province of Tosa up to
1880:

Amount of Camphor produced. Total Cost.

1877.......... 504,000 kins.... 65,520 yen.
1878.......... 519,000 " .... 72,660 "
1879.......... 292,890 " .... 74,481 "
1880.......... 192,837 " .... 58,302 "

(1 yen = 2_s_. 9_d_.)
(1 kin = 1-1/3lb.)

* * * * *

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