Scientific American Supplement, No. 481, March 21, 1885 by Various
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Various >> Scientific American Supplement, No. 481, March 21, 1885
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9 [Illustration]
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 481
NEW YORK, MARCH 21, 1885
Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIX, No. 481.
Scientific American established 1845
Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
* * * * *
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
I. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--The Righi Railroad.--With
3 engravings.
The Chinese Pump.--1 figure.
The Water Clock.--3 figures.
New Self-propelling and Steering Torpedoes.
Dobson and Barbour's Improvements in Heilmann's Combers.--1 figure.
Machine for Polishing Boots and Shoes.
II. TECHNOLOGY.--The Use of Gas in the Workshop.--By T.
FLETCHER.--Placing of lights.--Best burners.--Light lost by
shades.--Use of the blowpipe.--Gas furnaces.--Gas engines.
The Gas Meter.--3 figures.
The Municipal School for Instruction in Watchmaking at
Geneva.--1 engraving.
III. ELECTRICITY, ETC.--Personal Safety with the Electric
Currents.
A Visit to Canada and the United States; or, Electricity in
America in 1884.--By W.H. PREECE.
IV. ARCHITECTURE.--The House of a Thousand Terrors, Rotterdam.--With
engraving.
V. GEOLOGY.--On the Origin and Structure of Coal,--With full page
of illustrations.
VI. POLITICAL ECONOMY.--Labor and Wages in America.--By D.
PIDGEON.--Who and what are the operatives.--Native labor.--Alien
employes.--Housing of labor.--Sobriety.--Pauperism.--Artisans'
homes.--Interest of employer in the condition of his
employes.--Wages in Europe and America.--Expenditures of
workingmen.--Free trade and protection.
VII. MISCELLANEOUS.--Ice Boat Races on the Mueggelsee, near
Berlin.--With engraving.
VIII. BIOGRAPHY.--DUPUY DE LOME--With portrait.
* * * * *
THE RIGHI RAILROAD.
In the year 1864, the well-known geographer, Heinrich Keller, from Zurich,
on ascending to the summit of the Righi Mountain, in the heart of
Switzerland, discovered one of the finest panoramic displays of mountain
scenery that he had ever witnessed. To his enthusiastic descriptions some
lovers of nature in Zurich and Berne listened with much interest, and in
the year 1865, Dr. Abel, Mr. Escher von der Luith, Aulic Councilor, Dr.
Horner, and others, in connection with Keller himself, subscribed money to
the amount of 2,000 marks ($500) for the purpose of building a hotel on
the top of the mountain overlooking the view. This hotel was simple
enough, being merely a hut such as is to be found in abundance in the
Alps, and which are built by the German and Austrian Alpine Clubs. At
present the old hotel is replaced by another and more comfortable
building, which is rendered accessible by a railway that ascends the
mountain. Mr. Riggenbach, director of the railway works at Olten, was the
projector of this road, which was begun in 1869 and completed in 1871.
Vitznau at Lucerne is the starting point. The ascent, which is at first
gradual, soon increases one in four. After a quarter of an hour the train
passes through a tunnel 240 feet in length, and over an iron bridge of the
same length, by means of which the Schnurtobel, a deep gorge with
picturesque waterfalls, is crossed. At Station Freibergen a beautiful
mountain scene presents itself, and the eye rests upon the glittering,
ice-covered ridge of the Jungfrau, the Monk, and the Eiger. Further up is
station Kaltbad, where the road forks, and one branch runs to Scheideck.
At about ten minutes from Kaltbad is the so-called "Kanzli" (4,770 feet),
an open rotunda on a projecting rock, from which a magnificent view is
obtained. The next station is Stoffelhohe, from which the railroad leads
very near to the abyss on the way to Righi-Stoffel, and from this point it
reaches its terminus (Righi-Kulin) in a few minutes. This is 5,905 feet
above the sea, the loftiest and most northern point of the Righi group.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--STARTING POINT OF THE RIGHI RAILROAD.]
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--THE RIGHI RAILROAD.]
The gauge of this railroad is the same as that of most ordinary ones.
Between the rails runs a third broad and massive rail provided with teeth,
which gear with a cogwheel under the locomotive. The train is propelled
upward by steam power, while in its descent the speed is regulated by an
ingenious mode of introducing atmospheric air into the cylinder. The
carriage for the passengers is placed in both cases in front of the
engine. The larger carriages have 54 seats, and the smaller 34. Only one
is dispatched at a time. In case of accident, the train can be stopped
almost instantaneously.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--NEW LOCOMOTIVE ON THE RIGHI RAILROAD.]
We give herewith, from _La Lumiere Electrique_, several engravings
illustrating the system. Fig. 1 shows the starting station. As may be seen
on Figs. 2 and 3, the method selected for obtaining adhesion permits of
ascending the steepest gradients, and that too with entire security.
* * * * *
HIGH SPEED STEAM ENGINE.
The use of rapidly rotating machinery in electric lighting has created a
demand for engines running from 400 to 1,200 revolutions per minute, and
capable of being coupled directly to a dynamo machine. We have already
illustrated several forms of these engines, and now publish engravings of
another in which the most noticeable feature is the employment of separate
expansion valves and very short steam passages. Many high-speed engines
labor under the well-grounded suspicion of being heavy steam users, and
their want of economy often precludes their employment. Mr. Chandler, the
inventor of the engine illustrated above, has therefore adopted a more
elaborate arrangement of valves than ordinarily obtains in engines of this
class, and claims that he gains thereby an additional economy of 33 per
cent. in steam. The valves are cylindrical, and are driven by independent
eccentrics, the spindle of the cut-off valve passing through the center of
the main valve. The upper valve is exposed to the steam on its top face,
and works in a cylinder with a groove cut around its inner surface. As
soon as the lower edge of the valve passes below the bottom lip of the
groove, the steam is cut off from the space between it and the main valve,
which is fitted with packing rings and works over a latticed port. This
port opens directly into the cylinder. The exhaust takes place chiefly
through a port uncovered when the piston is approaching the end of its
stroke. The remaining vapor left in the cylinder is exhausted under the
lower edge of the main valve, until cushioning commences, and the steam
from both upper and lower ports is discharged into the exhaust box shown
in Fig. 2. The speed of the engine is controlled by a centrifugal governor
and an equilibrium valve. This is a "dead face" valve, and when the engine
is running empty it opens and closes many times per minute. The spindle
on which the valve is mounted revolves with the governor pulley, and
consequently never sticks. To prevent the small gland being jammed by
unequal screwing up, the pressure is applied by a loose flange which is
rounded at the part which presses against the gland. The governor is
adjustable while the engine is running.
[Illustration: IMPROVED HIGH SPEED STEAM ENGINE.]
Another economy claimed for this engine is in the use of oil. The cranks
and connecting rods work in a closed chamber, the lower part of which is
filled with oil and water. The oil floats in a layer on the surface of the
water, and at every revolution is splashed all over the working parts,
including the interior of the cylinder, which it reaches through holes in
the piston. The oil is maintained exactly at one level by a very ingenious
arrangement. The bottom of the crank chamber communicates through a hole,
C, with an outer box, which receives the water deposited by the exhaust
steam. The level of this water is exactly determined by an overflow hole,
B, which allows all excess above that level to pass into an elbow of the
exhaust pipe, out of which it is licked by the passing steam and carried
away. Thus, as the oil is gradually used the pressure of the water in the
other leg of the hydrostatic balance raises the level of the remaining
portion. When a fresh supply of oil is poured into the box, it forces out
some of the water and descends very nearly to the level of the hole, B.
The engine is made with either one or two cylinders, and is, of course,
single-acting. The pistons and connecting rods are of forged steel and
phosphor-bronze. The following is a list of their sizes:
_Single Engines_.
-----------------------------------------------------------
Brake | | | | |
Horsepower| Bore of | Revolutions| | |
at 62 lb.| Cylinder. | per minute.| Height. |Floor Space.|
Boiler | | | | |
Pressure. | | | | |
----------|-----------|------------|---------|-------------
| in. | | in. | in. in. |
21/4 | 4 | 1,100 | 26 | 14 by 14 |
31/2 | 5 | 1,000 | 28 | 14 " 15 |
6 | 61/2 | 800 | 30 | 16 " 16 |
10 | 8 | 700 | 32 | 18 " 18 |
-----------------------------------------------------------
_Double Engines_.
-----------------------------------------------------------
Brake | | | | |
Horsepower| Bore of | Revolutions| | |
at 62 lb.| Cylinder. | per minute.| Height. |Floor Space.|
Boiler | | | | |
Pressure. | | | | |
----------|-----------|------------|---------|-------------
| in. | | in. | in. in. |
41/2 | 4 | 1,100 | 26 | 14 by 20 |
71/4 | 5 | 1,000 | 28 | 14 " 20 |
12 | 61/2 | 800 | 30 | 16 " 26 |
20 | 8 | 700 | 32 | 18 " 32 |
-----------------------------------------------------------
The manufacturer is Mr. F.D. Bumstead, Hednesford,
Staffordshire.--_Engineering_.
* * * * *
THE CHINESE PUMP.
If a glass tube about three feet in length, provided at its upper
extremity with a valve that opens outwardly, and at its lower with one
that opens inwardly, be dipped into water and given a series of up and
down motions, the water will be seen to quickly rise therein and finally
spurt out at the top. The explanation of the phenomenon is very simple.
Upon immersing the tube in the water it fills as far as to the external
level of the liquid, and the air is expelled from the interior. If the
tube be suddenly raised without removing its lower extremity from the
water, the valve will close, the water will rise with the tube, and,
through the velocity it has acquired, will ascend far above its preceding
level. Now, upon repeating the up and down motion of the tube in the water
five or six times, the tube will be filled, and will expel the liquid
every time that the vertical motion occurs.
[Illustration: THE CHINESE PUMP.]
We speak here of a _glass_ tube, because with this the phenomenon may be
observed. Any tube, of course, would produce the same results.
The manufacture of the apparatus is very simple. The tube is closed above
or below, according to the system one desires to adopt, by means of a
perforated cork. The valve is made of a piece of kid skin, which is fixed
by means of a bent pin and a brass wire (Fig. 2). It is necessary to wet
the skin in order that it may work properly and form a hermetic valve. The
arrangement of the lower valve necessitates the use of a tube of
considerable diameter (Fig. 1). We would advise the adoption of the
arrangement shown in Fig. 2. Under such circumstances a tube half an inch
in diameter and about 3 feet in length will answer very well.
It is better yet to simply use one's forefinger. The tube is taken in the
right hand, as shown in Fig. 3, and the forefinger placed over the
aperture. The finger should be wetted in order to perfect its adherence,
and should not be pressed too hard against the mouth of the tube. It is
only necessary to plunge the apparatus a few inches into the liquid and
work it rapidly up and down, when the water will rise therein at every
motion and spurt out of the top.
This is an easy way of constructing the _Chinese Pump_, which is found
described in treatises upon hydraulics. Such a pump could not, of course,
be economically used in practice on account of the friction of the column
of water against a wide surface in the interior of the tube. It is
necessary to consider the pistonless pump for what it is worth--an
interesting experimental apparatus that any one can make for himself.--_La
Nature_.
* * * * *
THE WATER CLOCK.
_To the Editor of the Scientific American_:
Referring to the clepsydra, or water clock, described and illustrated in
the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT of December 20, 1884, it strikes me
that the ingenious principle embodied in that interesting device could be
put into a shape more modern and practical, doing away with some of its
defects and insuring a greater degree of accuracy.
[Illustration: Fig 1.]
I would propose the construction given in the subjoined sketch, viz.: The
drum, A (Figs. 1 and 3), is mounted in a yoke suspended in such a manner
as to bring no unnecessary, but still sufficient, pressure on the friction
roller, B, to cause it to revolve the friction cone, C (both cone and
roller being of wood and, say, well rubbed with resin so as to increase
adhesion).
[Illustration: Fig 2.]
The friction roller should be movable (on a screw thread), but so arranged
that it can be fixed at any point, say by a lock nut, screw, clamp, or
other simple means. It will be evident that, by shifting the roller, a
greater or less speed of the cone can be effected, and as to the end of
the cone's axis an index hand sweeping an ordinary clock face is attached,
the speed of this index hand can be regulated to a nicety, in proportion
to that of the drum. Of course, before fixing the size and proportion of
the disk and cone, the number of revolutions of the drum in a given time
must be ascertained by experiment. For instance, the drum being found to
make 15 revolutions in 12 hours, the proportions would be:
Circumference of roller = 12 units.
Circumference of middle part of cone = 15 units.
Or, the drum making 21/2 revolutions in 3 hours, equal to 9 revolutions in
12 hours:
Circumference of roller = 12 units.
Circumference of middle part of cone = 9 units.
Any slight inaccuracy can be compensated by the cone and disk device.
The drum, or cylinder, is caused to gradually revolve by a weight attached
to an endless cord passing once around the drum. The latter might be
varnished to prevent slipping. The weight should be provided with an
automatic wedge, allowing it to be slipped along the cord in an upward
direction, but preventing its descent. The weight is represented partly in
section in the engraving. This weight should not be quite sufficient to
revolve the drum, it being counterbalanced by the liquid raised in the
chambers of the drum. The liquid, however, following its tendency to seek
the lowest level, gradually runs back through the small hole, D, in the
partitions, but is continually raised again, with the chamber it has just
entered, by the weight slightly turning the cylinder as it (the weight)
gradually gains advantage over the as gradually diminishing weight of each
chamber raised.
As to the drum, the same might be constructed as follows, viz.: First
solder the partitions into the cylinder, making them slanting or having
the direction of chords of a circle (see Fig. 2). The end disks should be
dish shaped, as shown. Place them on a level surface, apply heat, and melt
some mastic or good sealing wax in the same. Then adjust the cylinder
part, with its partitions, allowing it to sink into the slight depth of
molten matter. In this way, or perhaps by employing a solution of rubber
instead of the sealing wax, the chambers will be well isolated and not
liable to leak. The water is then introduced through the center openings
of the disks before hermetically sealing the drum to its axis.
[Illustration: Fig. 3.]
The revolving parts of the clock being nicely balanced, a pretty accurate
timepiece, I should think, would be the result. It is needless to mention
that the "winding" is effected by slipping the weight to its highest
point.
Of course I am far from considering the above an "instrument of
precision," but would rather look upon it in the light of a contrivance,
interesting, perhaps, especially to amateur mechanics, as not presenting
any particular difficulties of construction.
ED. C. MAGNUS.
Crefeld, January 5, 1885.
* * * * *
NEW TORPEDO.
We illustrate a new form of self-propelling and steering torpedo, designed
and patented by Mr. Richard Paulson, of Boon Hills, Langwith, Notts. That
torpedoes will play an important part in the next naval war is evident
from the fact that great activity is being displayed by the various
governments of the world in the construction of this weapon. Our own
Government also has latterly paid great attention to this subject.
The methods hitherto proposed for propelling torpedoes have been by means
of carbonic acid or other compressed gas carried by the torpedoes, and by
means of electricity conveyed by a conductor leading from a controlling
station to electrical apparatus carried by the torpedo. The first method
has, to a considerable extent, failed on account of the inefficient way in
which the compressed gas was employed to propel the torpedo. The second is
open to the objection that by means of telephones placed in the water or
by other signaling apparatus the torpedo can be heard approaching while
yet at a considerable distance, and that a quick speeded dredger, kept
ready for the purpose when any attack is expected, can be run between the
torpedo and the controlling station and the conductor cut and the torpedo
captured. The arrangements for steering by means of an electrical
conductor from a controlling station are also open to the latter
objection. The torpedo we now illustrate, in elevation in Fig. 1, and in
plan in Fig. 2, is designed to obviate these objections, and possesses in
addition other advantages which will be enumerated in the following
description.
As stated above, the torpedo is self-propelling, the necessary energy
being stored up in liquefied carbonic acid contained in a cylindrical
vessel, E, carried by the torpedo. The vessel, E, communicates, by means
of a small bent pipe extending nearly to its bottom, with a small chamber,
B, the passage of the liquid being controlled by means of the cock or tap,
F. The chamber, B, is in communication, by means of a small aperture, with
the nozzle, G, of an injector, T, constructed on the ordinary principles.
The liquid as it passes into the chamber, B, volatilizes, and the gas
passes through the nozzle of the injector, which is surrounded by water in
direct communication with the sea by means of the opening, W. The gas
imparts its energy in the well-known manner to the water, being itself
entirely or partially condensed, the water thus charged with carbonic acid
gas being forced through the combining cone of the injector at a very high
speed and pressure. Preferably the water is here divided into two streams,
each driving a separate rotary motor or turbine, H, themselves driving
twin screws or propellers, I. The motors exhaust into the hollow shafts,
J, of the propellers, which are extended some distance beyond the
propellers, so that the remaining energy of the water may be utilized to
aid in propelling the torpedo on the well known principle of jet
propulsion. The torpedo is preferably steered by means of the twin screws.
A disk or other valve, A, is pivoted in an aperture in a diaphragm
dividing the outlet of the injector, and is operated by means hereafter
described, so as to diminish the stream of water on one side and increase
it on the other, so that one motor, and consequently the corresponding
propeller, is driven at a higher speed than the other, and so steers the
torpedo.
[Illustration: PAULSON'S SELF PROPELLING AND STEERING TORPEDO.]
The valve, A, is operated automatically by the following arrangement: A
mariner's compass, P, placed in the head of the torpedo has its needle
connected to one pole of a powerful battery, D. A dial of non-magnetic
material marked with the points of the compass is capable of being rotated
by the connections shown. This dial carries two insulated studs, _p_, each
electrically connected with one terminal of the coils of an electromagnet,
K, whose other terminal is connected to the other pole of the battery.
These two magnets are arranged on opposite sides of an armature fixed on a
lever operating the disk or valve, A. Before launching the torpedo the
dial is set, so that when the torpedo is steering direct for the object to
be struck, or other desired point, one end of the needle of the compass,
P, is between the steeds, _p_, but contact with neither, the needle of
course pointing to the magnetic north. Should the torpedo however deviate
from this course, the needle makes contact with one or other of the studs
according to the direction in which the deviation takes place, and
completes the circuit through the corresponding electromagnet, which
attracts the armature and causes the disk to move, so as to diminish the
supply of water to one motor and increase it to the other, and so cause
the torpedo to again assume the required direction. Supposing the object
which it is intended that the torpedo should strike be a large mass of
iron, such as an ironclad, the needle will be attracted, and, making the
corresponding contact, will cause the torpedo to be steered directly away
from the object. In order to prevent this, a second compass, Q, is mounted
in the front of the torpedo, and when attracted by a mass of iron, it
short-circuits the battery, D, and thus prevents the armature being
attracted, and consequently the torpedo from deviating. This needle is
also capable of slight movement in a vertical plane, so that when passing
over or under a mass of iron it is attracted downward or upward, and
completes a circuit by means of the stops, which operate so as to explode
the charge. The charge can also be exploded in the ordinary manner, viz.,
by means of the firing pin, X, when the torpedo runs into any solid
object.
The depth at which the torpedo travels below the surface of the water is
regulated by means of a flexible diaphragm, M, secured in the outer casing
and connected to a rod sliding freely in fixed bearings. A spiral or other
spring, O, is compressed between a color on the rod and an adjustable
fixed nut, by which the tension of the spring is regulated so that the
pressure of water on the diaphragm, A, when the torpedo is at the desired
depth just counterbalances the pressure of the spring, the diaphragm being
then flush with the outer casing. The rod is connected by suitable levers
to two horizontal fins, S, pivoted one on either side of the torpedo, so
that they shall be in equilibrium. Should the torpedo sink too deep or
rise too high, the diaphragm will be depressed or extended, and will
operate on the lines so as to cause the torpedo to ascend or descend as
the case may be.
In order to avoid the risk of a spent torpedo destroying a friendly
vessel, a valve is arranged in any suitable part of the outer casing, and
is weighted or loaded with a spring in such a manner that when under way
the pressure of the water keeps the valve closed, but when it stops the
valve opens and admits water to sink the torpedo.
In our description we have only given the main features of the invention,
the inventor having mentioned to us, in confidence, several improvements
designed to perfect the details of his invention, among which we may
mention the steering arrangement and arrangements for attacking a vessel
provided with what our contemporary, _Engineering_, not inaptly terms a
"crinoline," _i. e._, a network for keeping off torpedoes. The transverse
dimensions of our engravings have been considerably augmented for the sake
of clearness.--_Mech. World._
* * * * *
DUPUY DE LOME.
M. Dupuy De Lome died on the 1st Feb., 1885, at the age of 68. It may be
questioned whether any constructor has ever rendered greater services to
the navy of any country than those rendered by M. Dupuy to the French Navy
during the thirty years 1840-70. Since the fall of the Empire his
connection with the naval service has been terminated, but his
professional and scientific standing has been fully maintained, and his
energies have found scope in the conduct of the great and growing business
of the _Forges et Chantiers_ Company. In him France has undoubtedly lost
her greatest naval architect.
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